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NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT, 



THE 



NATURALIST'S ASSISTANT 



a JjanfrBooft for tije Collector anU Stutirnt 



WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FIFTEEN HUNDRED WORKS 

NECESSARY FOR THE SYSTEMATIC 

ZOOLOGIST 



BY J. S. KINGSLEY 




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BOSTON 

S. E. CASSINO, PUBLISHER 

1882 



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Copyright, 
BY S. E. CASSINO, 

1882. 



ELECTROTYPED. 



BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY, 
No. 4 Peari, Street. 



CHAPTER I. 



COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS. 

Many treatises and papers have been written on the methods 
of collecting and preserving zoological specimens ; the more 
important of which are enumerated below. Space prevents 
giving the various operations in detail in this volume, but it 
is hoped that the directions given, although concise, will 
prove explicit and valuable. For more extended accounts of 
the methods employed in collecting and preserving specimens, 
the student is referred to the following works : 

Boitard — Manuel du Naturaliste Preparateur. Paris, 1853. 

T. Brown — The Taxidermist's Manual. London, 1859. 

Elliott Coues — Field Ornithology. Salem, 1874. 

J. B. Davies — Naturalists' Guide. Edinburgh, 1853. 

G. Dimmock — Directions for the Collecting of Coleoptera. Spring- 
field, Mass., 1872. 

J. H. Emerton — Life on the Seashore. Salem, 1880. 

James Lewis — Directions for Collecting Land and Fresh Water 
Shells (American Naturalist, vol. ii, 1868). 

C. J. Maynard — Naturalists' Guide. Salem, 1870. 

A. S. Packard, jr. — Directions for Collecting and Preserving In- 
sects (Smithsonian Institution). 

Smithsonian Directions for Collectors. 

W. Swainson — Taxidermy. London, 1851. 

1 (1) 



2 . naturalists' assistant. 

C. A. Walker — Hints on Taxidermy (American Naturalist, vol. iii, 
1870). 

Lord Walsingham — Directions for Collecting Micro-Lepidoptera 
(American Naturalist, vol. vi, 1872). 

S. P. Woodward — Manual of the Mollusca. London, 1871. 

VERTEBRATES. 

Mammals and birds are most readily procured by shooting 
with a gun, using shot large enough to kill, but not so large 
as seriously to injure the specimen. The size of the shot to 
be employed cannot, of course, be dogmatically prescribed, 
as it varies with the size of the animal, but in general terms 
"number 8 " shot will be large enough for all birds under 
the size of a pigeon, while for birds of greater bulk, " number 
5 ", or larger, will be required. These remarks apply equally 
well to the smaller mammals ; for the larger ones a rifle may 
be necessary. It must be insisted on that the collector shoot 
at any part of the body rather than at the head. Some col- 
lectors use a bow and arrow or a blow gun for the smaller 
birds, and with slight practice become very expert. Traps 
and snares of various sorts are frequently employed and with 
the advantage of obtaining the specimen in an uninjured 
condition. " Bird-lime " is also used to capture birds alive. 

The English method of making this substance is as fol- 
lows : the middle bark of the holly, mistletoe or distaff-thistle, 
is chopped up and boiled in water several hours. The result- 
ing liquid is then strained and concentrated by evaporation 
until it assumes a gelatinous consistency, resembling moist 
putty. Doubtless the bark of several of our American trees 



VERTEBRATES. 3 

and shrubs would answer the same purpose, but the writer is 
not aware of any experiments having been tried. A substitute 
may be made by taking ordinary wheat flour, placing it in a 
bag of fine muslin and washing it in running water, aiding the 
process by squeezing until all the starch is washed out, and 
only the gluten remains behind. This gluten is an adhesive 
substance, which is said to answer the purpose well. 

A third formula for bird-lime is to take linseed oil and 
heat it over a slow fire (carefully watching it to see that it 
does not burn), until it is very thick, then pour it into cold 
water. If it should prove too thick, the addition of a little 
pine tar will readily thin it for use. 

The bird-lime should be smeared on the branches of trees, 
etc., where birds most do congregate, and by adhering to 
their feet, it holds them fast, and renders them an easy prey 
to the collector. 

No matter how procured, all mammals and birds intended 
for stuffing should have the mouth, nostrils, anus and all 
wounds, stopped immediately with cotton wool to prevent 
any soiling of the fur or feathers. It is also well to place each 
bird head first in a cone made of cartridge paper, before 
placing in the game bag, as this will prevent disarrangement 
of the feathers. 

All Vertebrates are really more valuable as alcoholic speci- 
mens, than they are when mounted after the usual manner of 
taxidermists, as the naturalist is then able at any time to 
pursue any desired investigation of their anatomy, a course 
from which he is utterly debarred with stuffed specimens. 
Before being placed in spirit, the abdominal walls of all Ver- 



4 NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 

tebrates should be cut open, care being taken not to injure 
the viscera. This allows the alcohol to readily penetrate the 
interior. It is also well to remove a portion of the skull, so 
that the preservative fluid can have access to the brain. Al- 
coholic specimens cf foreign vertebrates thus prepared are 
a great desideratum in all "museums, and especially in those 
where it is realized that science is more than skin deep, and 
consists of more than a lot of scientific names. 

The art of skinning mammals and birds may be more 
readily learned by seeing another perform the operation than 
from pages of description. For those who do not have an 
opportunity of learning the methods employed by observation, 
the following directions which are modified from those given 
in Davies' " Naturalist's Guide " (by the way a very valuable 
little work) may prove of use. 

MAMMALS. 

The cotton wool is first removed from the nostrils, mouth, 
anus and wounds and replaced by fresh plugs. The animal 
is then laid on its back, its legs pressed out and the fur 
parted on the median line of the ventral surface. An incision 
is then made through the skin, at the posterior portion of the 
abdomen, care being taken to cut the skin only and not the 
underlying muscles, this incision to be continued forward to 
near the neck. With the left hand the skin is then raised 
first on one side and then on the other, and at the same time 
separated from the adjacent muscles with the handle of the 
scalpel, an ivory paper knife or other blunt instrument held in 



MAMMALS. 5 

the right hand. The portion of the skin thus disengaged is 
kept from adhering to the flesh of the body, by being sprinkled 
with plaster of Paris. The anus is then cut through, and im- 
mediately after, the tail at its junction with the body. The hind 
legs are then cut off at the upper thigh joint, and the posterior 
part of the body turned out of the skin. The carcase is now 
suspended by the pelvis on a hook supported by a string 
from the ceiling of the room, and the skin gently pulled down 
from the back, the operation being facilitated by the handle 
of the scalpel as before. The fore legs are then disarticu- 
lated at the shoulder joint. The neck is then uncovered and 
the head proceeded with. In skinning the latter part, great 
care must be exercised to cut off the ears as close to the 
skull as possible, and to preserve the eyelids, nostrils and lips 
uninjured. The neck is now separated from the skull. The 
trunk is now removed from the hook and laid aside, and the 
legs successively hung on the hook, and the skin drawn down 
as far as the toes. The flesh is then removed from the bones 
of the legs, care being taken to leave the tendons uniting the 
joints entire. In order to skin the tail, the first two or three 
vertebras are laid bare and attached to a stout cord. A 
cleft stick is then made to embrace this portion already 
skinned beyond the cord and gradually forced down toward 
the extremity, carrying with it the freed skin. 

The skin now being separated is carefully examined and 
any flesh or fat removed by the scalpel. The inside of the 
skin is then thoroughly rubbed over with the common white 
arsenic of the shops (arsenious acid) or if preferred com- 
pletely anointed with arsenical soap. The bones of the legs 



6 naturalists' assistant. 

are to be treated in the same manner, and, having been 
wrapped with tow, are returned to their places. The skull is 
next pulled out through the neck and freed from fat and flesh 
and the brain removed through the opening behind. In 
some cases it may be necessary to enlarge this opening by 
breaking away the adjacent bone, but this course should be 
avoided as much as possible, as the skull, from a scientific 
standpoint, is ot as much value as the skin, and should 
the latter by any means become destroyed (by no means an 
uncommon occurrence), the specimen will still retain a 
scientific value. It is well, when possible, to remove the 
skull entirely from the skin and macerate it in water until 
the flesh is removed, and the brain so decomposed as to be 
readily shaken out of the opening. It is sometimes desirable 
to preserve the skull and the skin separately, and at such times 
a rough model of the skull may be made of plaster of Paris, 
and placed in the skin, while such disposition is made of the 
skull as may be desired. Should the skull be returned to the 
head, the place of all flesh removed should be filled by 
tow. A wire wrapped with tow may be inserted in the tail, 
while the body is distended to something like its original 
shape by the same material. 

BIRDS. 

A paper ring is made fitting tightly around the body ; this 
is preserved as a measure of the proper size and is us^d 
farther on. This ring is then removed, the bird laid on its 
back, with the head pointing obliquely from the operator to- 



BIRDS. 7 

ward his left hand. The feathers are then separated in the 
median line by the left hand, and an incision is made much 
as in mammals, the extent of this slit varying somewhat 
with the expertness of the operator, as well as the kind of 
bird being skinned. The slit being made, the fingers are in- 
serted between the skin and the flesh, and the parts exposed 
dusted with plaster of Paris, to prevent any adhesion of the 
feathers. In some cases, it is advantageous to sew strips of 
cloth to the cut edges of the skin to keep the feathers clean, 
and also to prevent the skin from stretching. The legs are 
now pushed forward, and divided at the knee joints, after 
which the vertebral column is divided, leaving the last joint 
in the skin, as a support to the tail feathers. The body is 
then suspended from the hook by the rump end, and the skin 
separated from the back and sides (as in the case of mam- 
mals) until the shoulder joints appear. If the bird in hand 
be a water-fowl, it may be necessary to separate the wings at 
the shoulder joint, but whenever possible the division had 
best be made at the elbow. The neck is next to be skinned, 
taking great care not to stretch the skin, especially in the case 
of the long-necked birds. Then the head is separated from 
the integument as far as the bill. Now remove the tongue 
and muscles from the skull, and separate it from the neck, 
placing the carcase aside, and remove the brain from the 
skull with a quill, enlarging the opening if necessary for the 
purpose. Great care should be taken, in skinning the head, 
not to injure the external ear and the parts around the eyes. 
The bones left in the legs {tibice) are now to be skinned, 
cleaned, thoroughly covered with preservative (arsenic or 



8 naturalists' assistant. 

arsenical soap), and wrapped with tow. After treating the 
skin of the leg with arsenic, the bones are to be returned to 
their places by being gently pushed in. When the upper 
bone of the wing (humerus) is retained, it must be treated 
in the same manner. Except in the case of large birds, no 
treatment is necessary for the bones of the fore wing. In 
these, however, the muscles may be removed by making an 
incision on the inside of the wing, and then impregnating 
with arsenic, and fastening with two or three stitches. Now 
remove all flesh and fat from the skull and skin, and impreg- 
nate them thoroughly (the skull inside as well as out) with 
arsenic. A wire about the length of the neck is then taken, 
and one end being fastened in the base of the skull, a little 
tow or flax filled with arsenic is wrapped around it, and the 
head is pulled out of the neck by means of a string attached 
to the bill, bringing with it the tow-covered wire. Next dis- 
pose the wings in their proper position, place the paper ring, 
mentioned above, around the body, stuff the skin out to its 
proper dimensions with tow, sew up the slit, label and dry, 
and the specimen is ready for the cabinet. 

The foregoing directions are applicable to the majority of 
birds but will have to be modified occasionally. The feet 
of the larger birds of prey are frequently fleshy. In these 
cases it will be necessary to cut a slit on the under side of 
each toe and perhaps up to the back of the tarsus to remove 
the muscles and tendons ; then rub in the preservative, fill 
with tow and close the openings with a few stitches. The 
webs on the feet of swimming birds had best be skinned be- 
low and in all cases should be thoroughly poisoned. 



BIRDS. 



When the head is of such a size that the skin of the neck 
cannot be drawn over it, as is the case with the flamingo 
and most web-footed birds, it will be necessary to make an 
incision in the neck near the base of the skull and through it 
remove the brain, etc. This is an operation of considerable 
nicety as the feathers are very liable to get daubed. In case, 
however, any blood, brain or feculent matter should get on the 
feathers, it should be carefully removed by a cloth dampened in 
warm water. Grebes and other water fowl with white silky 
bellies are sometimes skinned from an incision in the back. 
In this way the feathers are less liable to be daubed and to be 
stained by the oil of the body when in the cabinet. 

Humming birds from their diminutive size are not easily 
skinned. They may, however, be preserved by making an in- 
cision on the belly and removing as much of the soft parts as 
possible with the forceps and scissors. The skin should then 
be thoroughly poisoned and filled with cotton wool or tow. 

On the label attached to each bird should be information 
as to the following points : 

Exact locality, date of capture, sex, food (ascertained by 
an examination of crop and gizzard) color of the eyes, feet, 
bill, gums, membranes, caruncles, etc. Attitude of body when 
at rest. Does the bird perch or not? The length in inches 
from the tip of bill to the end of tail, the distance between 
the extremities of the outstretched wings and the length of 
the wing from the carpal joint. 

Should it be desired to mount the specimen, information 
on the following points will aid the taxidermist in giving the 
proper position. 



IO 



NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 



Position of the wings whether supported or hanging, cross- 
ing on the tail or not. Are they continuous, or covered by 
the feathers of the back and breast, for the upper half or 
third or two-thirds of their length? Do their extremities 
reach the tip of the tail, the half or fourth of its length? 
Are the heels covered by the feathers of the belly ? 

The skins of mammals and birds prepared according to 
the foregoing directions are really more valuable for the nat- 
uralist than the mounted specimens. They may be kept 

systematically arranged in 
boxes or drawers. Mount- 
ing mammals and birds is 
the work of a taxidermist 
and directions for the op- 
erations are foreign to the 
purposes of this work. If 
it be desired to prepare the 
specimens for exhibition 
FlG - *« they had better be sent to 

the professional taxidermist, as amateur work generally pres- 
ents a very slovenly appearance. One thing, however, should 
always be insisted on ; the stands employed should be of the 
simplest character. For birds the form of stand shown in 
the adjacent figure is preferable. These stands are usually 
painted white. For mammals and many aquatic birds a 
board is all that is necessary. By all means avoid the use 
of mosc, mica sand, artificial leaves, etc., as they not only 
afford excellent lurking places for vermin, but also detract 
greatly from a scientific appearance of the collection ; they 
and not the specimens attract the eye. 




COLLECTING NESTS AND EGGS. II 



NESTS AND EGGS. 



The nests and eggs of birds are largely collected, espec- 
ially by the young, and many a naturalist of note traces his 
interest in zoology to Its early cabinet of eggs. It is not 
necessary to tell where to look for nests as every one with his 
eyes open can find them. Some are in tall trees, some birds 
build in bushes, some on the ground, while others affect the 
habitation of man. 

When a nest is found, great care should be taken to iden- 
tify the bird to which it belongs, otherwise both nest 
and eggs are scientifically useless. In some cases 
and especially with collectors in foreign countries, 
it will be necessary to shoot the parent birds to ac- 
complish this. All of the eggs should be taken and 
labelled at once so as to be beyond a doubt at any 

J J Fig. 2. 

time. The contents should also be extracted. This 
is effected by boring a hole in one side of the egg with ai> " egg 
drill" (a steel instrument which can be procured of any dealer 
in naturalists' supplies), fig. 2, and through this opening all 
contents may be withdrawn. For this purpose some use a 
fine nozzled syringe, while others insert the tip of a jeweller's 
blow-pipe into the opening, and then by blowing in the egg 
the yolk is forced out around the sides of the pipe. If incu- 
bation has proceeded to any length it will be necessary to cut 
the embryo up with fine pointed scissors and extract it in 
fragments with the aid of a bent needle. The interior should 
then be thoroughly rinsed, first with water and then with 



12 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 

arsenical soap. The opening can then be covered with a bit 
of goldbeater's skin. 

Exact labels giving the name of the bird laying the eggs, 
the locality and date, the number of eggs in the nest, etc., 
should be kept with each specimen and numbered to corre- 
spond with a number placed on the egg. 

Eggs of our native birds taken at various stages of incu- 
bation, the shell cracked and then the whole placed in 40 
per cent, alcohol and in a few hours transferred to fresh and 
slightly stronger spirit, and then after a day or two to alcohol 
of 70 to 80 per cent., would be very desirable in every 
museum of the world. Of course, with each egg should be 
preserved not only the name of the species, but also the 
number of hours since incubation began. Thus the student 
will be able to trace more or less completely, according to 
the amount of material at command, the development of the 
various forms of which, at present, comparatively little is 
known. The same process may be advantageously followed 
with the eggs of other animals, and in dissecting mammals 
all embryos should be carefully preserved. 

REPTILES AND BATRACHIA. 

The collection of snakes, turtles, lizards, frogs, toads, 
and salamanders is not accompanied with any special difficulty 
though proper precautions should be taken against venomous 
serpents. Various species of each group affect certain lo- 
calities, some living on land and others in the water. Some 
live in the open fields, othtrs in thick woods, while still others 



FISHES. 13 

are generally found in damp places under decaying timber, 
etc. 

All of the lower vertebrates are best preserved as "wet 
specimens," and in fact with the exception of the turtles and 
a few large forms are spoiled by being skinned and stuffed. 
In skinning turtles the lower shell (plastron) should first be 
removed with a chisel or saw ; the succeeding steps are essen- 
tially the same as pursued with mammals. Alligators and 
large lizards are skinned the same as mammals. When it 
is desired to put any of the lower vertebrates in alcohol, an 
incision should be made in the abdominal walls, so that the 
spirit may more readily penetrate the viscera. This is abso- 
lutely necessary if it be desired at any future time to investi- 
gate any more of the anatomy than the osteology. 

FISHES. 

Besides the familiar hook and line, fishes may be obtained 
by seines, trawls, etc., to be described further on under the 
head, "Marine Collecting." A good way of obtaining many 
forms is to visit the fish markets ; and also if possible hire 
the fishermen themselves to bring in specimens of all sorts 
that come up in their nets or on their lines. In this way 
many varieties may be obtained which never appear in the 
markets, as fishermen are accustomed to throw back all fish 
which according to their ideas are not edible. 

Fishes are almost universally preserved in alcohol, though 
some of the largest ones are occasionally stuffed. At such 
times a professional taxidermist had best be employed. 



r 



14 

In putting in alcohol the abdominal walls should be opened 
so that the spirit may the more readily enter and thus ensure 
the preservation of the viscera, some parts of which are very 
important even from a systematic standpoint. 

Fishes in alcohol do not present a very interesting or 
attractive appearance on the shelves of a museum, and only 
the ichthyologist is able to decide on the identity of alcoholic 
and fresh specimens. Many attempts have been made to 
preserve fish dry but the majority of methods employed do 
not produce very satisfactory results. The best process 
known to the writer is that invented by Dr. H. E. Davidson, 
who has not only described his method but has also given 
chances to witness the operation which is as follows : 

The necessary materials are thin pieces of soft wood about 
one- eighth of an inch in thickness ; square sticks measuring 
from three-fourths of an inch upwards ; plaster of paris 
glycerine, tissue paper, pins, and double pointed carpet tacks- 

The outline of the ' fish without the fins is marked on 
two pieces of board which are held together by pieces of the 
square sticks tacked across the ends, and then the portion 
corresponding to the body is cut away so that we have two 
strips of wood one following the dorsal and the other the 
ventral contour of the fish. The fish is then placed in this 
opening and the various fins are extended and fixed in 
position with pins, the board in the meantime being supported 
so that one side of the fish can freely extend through the 
opening in the joined boards. Strips of tissue paper wet 
with glycerine are then laid smoothly over the fish and next 
a coating of plaster is poured over the same side. When 



FISHES, 15 

the plaster is hardened, the boards, etc., are reversed and the 
rest of the work is carried on from the opposite side of the 
body. All that portion of the fish which projects through 
the opening is first cut away, and then all of the muscles, 
bones and viscera, are carefully removed until nothing re- 
mains but the skin supporting the fins and its plaster backing. 
In this condition one side of the skin is entire and on the 
other side a narrow strip of skin extends around the median 
line of the body from a quarter to half of an inch in width. 
The interior of the skin is now dusted with arsenic. The eye 
is then placed in position and the skin is filled with plaster 
mixed to about the consistency of cream. The double pointed 
carpet tacks are then taken, and their points, 
having been bent as shown in the adjacent 
figure, are hooked into the strip of skin and 
the loop embedded in the plaster. A small 
strip of wood (previously coated with shellac 
to prevent undue expansion from the moisture) is also em- 
bedded in the plaster, its upper surface being even with that 
of the plaster. The two halves of the board are separated 
when the plaster becomes dry, the skin with its plaster interior 
is removed from its mould and washed and the fins placed in 
clips so that they may dry flat. When thoroughly dry, the 
specimen is mounted on a wooden tablet by screws passing 
into the embedded block and the whole is ready for exhibi- 
tion. 

No means have yet been found of preserving the natural 
colors of the fish ; and the only way of representing them on 
the specimens thus mounted is by means of paints. 




1 6 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 

This process which has been thus briefly described, is the 
property of Dr. H. E. Davidson of Boston, and to him all 
inquiries, as to the rights to use it, should be addressed. 

SKELETONS. 

Of fully as much importance as skins, and scarcely more 
difficult to prepare, are skeletons of vertebrates, and when 
from any circumstance it is impossible to prepare the whole 
skeleton, the skull can frequently be preserved. The modus 
operandi is essentially the same for all vertebrates. 

Skeletons are of two sorts, natural and artificial : i. e., those 
where the bones are united by the ligaments, and those in 
which the ligaments are removed as well as the flesh, and the 
bones are articulated with wires and rods. Natural skeletons 
can only be prepared when the subject is of small size ; not 
exceeding the fox or goose in bulk. Skeletons of larger ani- 
mals must be, to a greater or less extent, artificially articulated. 

The skin is first removed from all parts of the body, the 
head separated and the viscera extracted. Then as much of 
the flesh as possible is removed with the scalpel, great care 
being taken not to cut, scratch or otherwise injure the bones. 
The body is then placed in cold water to macerate, some- 
times a little caustic potash is added to the water to ac- 
celerate the decomposition of the flesh, but except a gain 
in time there are no advantages to be gained by the ad- 
dition. For the first few days the water should be changed 
every day, and when the flesh is partially decomposed as 
much as possible is to be removed, taking care, if the skele- 



SKELETONS. 1 7 

ton is to be a natural one, not to injure the ligaments. 
The partially cleaned skeleton is then returned to the mac- 
erating tub, and on succeeding days is subjected to the 
cleansing operation until all the flesh is removed. It may 
be well, as a final step, to use a stiff nail brush to remove 
the last traces of flesh. 

The skull is treated in the same manner, and the brain 
is broken up and removed with a stick, through the occipital 
foramen. It is sometimes desirable to open the skull by 
sawing off the top, and thus to remove the brain more care- 
fully, preserving the tentorium and falx cerebri uninjured. 

Under no circumstances should the bones be boiled as 
that operation greases them and gives the skeleton an un- 
sightly appearance. If the water is left too long without 
changing, the bones are apt to become discolored. 

When finally cleansed, the skeleton (if a natural one) has 
a wire passed down the spinal canal, its end projecting from 
the neck and then, being supported in the desired position by 
strings or wires attached to a suitable framework, is left to 
dry. When dry, the skull is fastened to its place on the 
wire projecting from the neck, by means of copper or brass 
wire, the lower jaw is articulated to the skull, and held in a 
proper position by spiral springs. The body is then sup- 
ported on a couple of upright standards, arising from a hori- 
zontal base, and after being duly and fully labelled, the 
specimen is complete. 

It would be impossible, without occupying much more 
space than is allowed, to describe the method of articulating 
an artificial skeleton, while on the other hand it can be 
2 



1 8 naturalists' assistant. 

readily understood, after a few minutes' study of one thus 
prepared ; and therefore all who wish to articulate artificial 
skeletons are respectfully requested to obtain the requisite 
knowledge by observation. Great care, however, should 
be exercised that none of the small bones be lost in the 
process of maceration. 

COLLECTING INSECTS. 

Insects are the most numerous both in individuals and in 
species of any group of the animal kingdom and may be 

found almost everywhere 

and at every season of the 

year. Their beauty, their 

numbers, and the ease 

with which they may be 

collected and preserved, 

render them great favor- 

FlG - 4 - ites. Many a naturalist, 

who has acquired prominence, traces his studies to the 

collections of insects made in his youth. 

The insect collector needs certain pieces of apparatus 
none of them expensive and all easily made by one possess- 
ing an ordinary air ount of mechanical skill, or they may be 
readily procured in the shops. Those most essential are 
insect nets, means of killing, and conveniences for carrying 
the specimens home. 

An insect net, fig. 4, is readily made by taking a stout brass 
wire (iron rusts too readily) and bending it into a ring about 




COLLECTING INSECTS. 1 9 

twelve or fifteen inches in diameter. The ends of the wire 
should be bent out and soldered into a ferrule which will fit 
on the end of a cane or other handle. The net proper 
should be about twenty inches in depth and made of gauze 
or mosquito netting. It should not be attached directly to 
the ring, as it would then quickly fray out, but to a piece of 
strong cotton cloth which in turn is sewed to the ring. Other 
more elaborate forms are made in which the ring will fold up 
for convenience in carrying, but the saving hardly repays the 
additional expense. Those interested will find a good de- 
scription and figure in Dr. Packard's " Directions for Collect- 
ing and Preserving Insects, " published by the Smithsonian 
Institution, page 4, fig. 2, 
where one or two other 
forms are also described. 

The net is used princi- 
pally for collecting the 
strong flying insects {e. g., Butterflies), either on the wing 
or while at rest. With a swoop the net is brought over the 
insect, and then, by a dexterous twist, easily acquired but 
not readily described, the bag is thrown over the ring and 
the specimen is securely imprisoned. The insect may then 
either be pinned while in the net or transferred to the 
cyanide bottle to be described farther on. Lepidoptera may 
be killed while in the net by giving the thorax a severe pinch, 
of course taking care that the wings are not injured. 

A shallow scoop net, fig. 5, made in the same manner as 
the insect net above described is useful for collecting aquatic 




20 naturalists' assistant. 

insects. It is not necessary to detail the method of using it, 
as any one will readily find out for himself. 

For collecting stinging insects a pair of forceps, fig. 6, made 
of wire, the distal extremities of which are bent into broad 
blades covered with netting, will prove very convenient, es- 
pecially as there is no danger of being stung. The bee or 
other insects are caught between the blades while resting on a 
flower, and while a prisoner is pinned ; and then, the blades 
being opened, the pin is readily drawn from the meshes of 
the netting. 

An umbrella- is indispensable in collecting certain forms of 

insects. It is held spread open 
in an inverted position beneath 
the branches of some tree or 
shrub, then the foliage is beaten 
with a stick, and the insects 
drop and are caught. This is 
especially valuable for collecting certain Coleoptera, Spiders, 
Microlepidoptera, Psocidae, etc. 

For killing insects the most convenient plan is to take 'a 
wide-mouthed bottle and place in the bottom a piece of cya- 
nide of potassium (a dangerous poison) . Then some plaster 
of Paris is mixed to a stiff paste with water and poured 
over the cyanide. The plaster soon sets and holds the 
chemical firmly, while its porosity allows the fumes of prussic 
acid to pass readily into the vacant portion of the bottle. 
The bottle after thus being prepared should be allowed to 
stand open for a day to allow the moisture from the plaster 




COLLECTING INSECTS. 21 

to escape ; it should then be kept securely corked. One of 
these cyanide bottles will answer for a season's collecting and 
is safe- for children to use. An older person, however, should 
prepare the bottle, as the cyanide is very poisonous and 
sometimes produces severe ulcers on the parts of the body 
with which it may come in contact. 

Some instead of cyanide use ether, chloroform, benzine. 
or bisulphide of carbon in the bottle, but the rapidity with 
which these evaporate renders them far less convenient than 
the cyanide. Dr. Loew recommends moistening the bottom 
of the collecting bottle with creosote for killing Diptera. 
Lepidoptera may be killed by giving a severe pinch to the 
sides of the thorax, though this is very apt to remove many 
of the "feathers" from the body. The wings of a butterfly 
should never be touched with the fingers and great care 
should be taken to avoid mutilation of any insect. 

For carrying specimens home the collector should be pro- 
vided with wide-mouthed vials and bottles ; some empty 
and some containing alcohol ; a supply of "pill boxes" and 
a cork-lined box two inches in depth and in its other dimen- 
sions as large as can be conveniently carried in the pocket. 
Insect pins of various sizes are indispensable. The insects 
on being collected may be carried home alive by placing 
them in the pill boxes or the empty vials ; or they may be 
killed by the cyanide bottle or being placed in the alcoho'. 
or by pinching. Beetles and bugs may be kept in the al- 
cohol, or with other forms pinned in the field and kept in 
the cork-lined box. The writer has found a stiff round 
crowned hat a very convenient substitute for the cork-lined 



2 2 NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 

box, as the insects may be pinned on the inside and thus are 
not seen by that class of society who think a naturalist a 
little "cracked." Lepidoptera maybe conveniently carried 
by folding the wings together and placing them in square 
sheets of paper folded into a triangular form. 

It is impossible to say exactly where insects may be found. 
In general terms, gardens, the edges of woods and banks of 
ponds and streams are more bountifully supplied than tree- 
less meadows or deep forests. In winter the moss and bark 
on trees cover many beetles, spiders, Tingids and hymenop- 
terous insects, as well as pupae of these and other orders. 
In the summer, insects are far more numerous. The open 
fields will afford numerous Lepidoptera, beds of flowers will 
attract all orders, certain forms affect mushrooms and toad- 
stools, and Silphidce, Nitidulidce, and Staphylinidce, as well 
as various flies, may be found in the vicinity of carrion. Old 
boards and logs afford hiding places for various larvae as well 
as spiders, myriapods and beetles, while in such places the 
Thysanura thrive. In the moist loose earth at the edges ot 
woods Campodea, Trichopetalum, Scolopendrella and the 
Pauropidce. should be sought. Other species of insects, 
notably certain Scarabmdcz and dipterous larvae, live in ex- 
crementitious matter. Ponds and streams contain large 
numbers of insects ; beetles, bugs and the larvae of several 
other groups. One may do much for science by studying 
the transformations of these aquatic forms. Of the various 
stages passed through by our species of dragon-flies, caddis- 
flies, may-flies, etc., almost nothing is known. The galls 
found on trees and plants may be taken home and the larvae 



PINNING INSECTS. 23 

contained in them reared, and the same course may be pur- 
sued with all the larvae and pupae found while collecting. 

PINNING INSECTS. 

Insects are usually mounted for the cabinet on pins made 
especially for the purpose, which can be procured of any 
dealer in naturalists' supplies. Those most generally em- 
ployed are bras^, silver plated. A good quality should be 
used, as with poor pins the specimen is apt to be covered 
with verdigris while the pin itself is soon destroyed. To 
avoid this, varnished pins, and silver and platinum wire 
have been employed. A gold plated pin has been recently 
introduced with very satisfactory results while the increase 
in price is slight. The best silvered pins are those made 
in Berlin by Klager. There are five sizes, of which num- 
bers one, three, and five are the most convenient, number 
one being the finest. Still smaller pins are made for minute 
insects. The insect is impaled with one of these smallest pins 
and fastened to a bit of cork which in turn is mounted on 
a larger pin and the whole placed in the collection. Most 
insects are pinned through the thorax, but beetles should 
have the pin inserted through the right wing cover. The 
specimens should all be pinned at an equal height, so that 
about one-fourth of the pin extends above the insect. On 
the pin below the insect should be kept labels, dates and 
localities of capture, and all information of value. Very 
minute insects are frequently glued to bits of card and 
these are in turn pinned. It is most convenient to cover a 



2 4 



naturalists' assistant. 



piece of card with gum, place the insects promiscuously 
upon it and then when dry cut to suit the specimen. Thin 
pieces of mica are also used in a similar manner. 

To place the insects in the cabinet, what are known as pin- 
ning forceps are frequently used. These are 
forceps made after the usual manner, except 
that the extremities are bent as shown in fig. 
7, and the corrugations of the points are so 
arranged as to hold the pin firmly. The pin 
is grasped by them about a quarter of an 
inch from the extremity and forced into the 
bottom of the case with a gentle pressure. 
By this method all danger of bending the 
pins is averted, a result which frequently fol- 
lows an attempt to set them with the fingers. 
They may also be set with much greater reg- 
ularity with the forceps than without. 

spreading butterflies. 

Butterflies and moths should always have 
the wings extended and it is frequently de- 
sirable to mount other insects in the same 
manner. This is accomplished by means of 
a "setting board." A strip of pine or other 
soft wood has a groove ploughed through the middle to 
the depth of from three-quarters of an inch to an inch. 
The bottom of the groove is generally lined with cork to 
hold the point of the pin. It is frequently desirable to have 



Fig. 7. 



SPREADING BUTTERFLIES. 25 

the surface of the setting board slightly bevelled towards the 
middle groove, as in this way a drooping appearance of the 
wings is prevented. See fig. 8. 

The pin is passed through the thorax of the insect into the 




Fig. 



cork in the groove and then the body lying in the groove, 
the wings are taken, first on one side and then on the other, 
with a fine pair of forceps (never with the fingers) , placed 



26 naturalists' assistant. 

in the desired position and held either by a slip of cardboard 
pinned to the setting board, or by the weight of a piece of 
gla*ss or sheet lead. The wings of the two sides should be 
brought to symmetrical positions and the antennae and legs 
disposed as desired and held in position with pins if neces- 
sary. The board and its contents should then be put away 
to dry, an operation which will occupy from three days to a 
week or more according to the temperature and moisture of 
the air. 

The collector in the field will find it convenient to pack 
butterflies in sheets of paper folded in triangles and in this 
shape they may be kept as long as desired, of course all due 
precautions being taken to prevent the ravages of injurious 
insects. When it is desired to spread them they may be re- 
laxed, no matter how long a time has elapsed since their col- 
lection, by placing them in a covered box, the bottom of 
which is covered with moist sand, the insects being protect- 
ed from soiling by the intervention of a sheet of paper. 
The box with its contents is then placed in a warm place 
for half a day when the moisture arising from the sand will 
have so relaxed the muscles and tendons that the specimens 
may be spread in the manner above described. 

Beetles, bugs, and orthoptera may be taken from the 
alcohol and pinned at any time, but flies, Hymenoptera, 
Neuroptera and Lepidoptera never present a good appear- 
ance after immersion in spirits, though Hymenoptera and 
Neuroptera stand the operation better than the others. A 
protracted stay in the spirit injures the colors of all insects. 



INFLATING LARVAE. 27 

Insects frequently become broken while in the cabinet 
and it is recommended that inspissated ox gall made into 
a thick gum with a little water be employed in mending 
them. 

It is occasionally necessary to transport collections of in- 
sects from one place to another and at such times the great- 
est care should be taken to protect them from injury. The 
collector in distant parts can send all but the Lepidoptera 
and flies in spirit ; the former may be sent folded in envel- 
opes while flies can only be pinned. In case mounted 
specimens are to be sent the danger of damage is much 
greater. Small cork-lined boxes should be employed and 
the pins should be very firmly fixed, the points being forced 
into the wood of the box. These smaller boxes should 
then be placed in a larger one and surrounded on all sides 
with crumpled paper, hay, "excelsior," or other elastic pack- 
ing. By this process all jars received in transit are much 
lessened. 

INFLATING LARV/E. 

Besides the usual manner of preserving larvae in spirit they 
are sometimes inflated and dried. Several advantages accrue 
from this method of preservation ; the colors are better 
preserved, all hairs and spines retain their proper position 
and the specimens are always in good condition for the 
artist's pencil. The following account of the process is con- 
densed from that of Mr. Scudder : 

The necessary instruments for the operation are a small 



28 



NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 



tin oven, a spirit lamp, a pair of finely pointed scissors, a little 
fine wire and a straw. 

The oven is a tin box two and one-half inches high, two and 
one-half wide and five long, the cover is of glass and one end 
is perforated with a hole one and one-half inches in diameter. 
See fig. 9. No solder should be used in its construction. 




The wire should be very fine and annealed. It should not be 
over one-half a millimetre (one-fiftieth of an inch) in diameter. 
Kill the subject by a drop of ether or by immersion in 
alcohol. If it be a hairy caterpillar it should remain at least 
half an hour in alcohol and then rest two hours on blotting 



MOUNTING SPIDERS. 29 

paper, otherwise the hairs are apt to drop off. Then, holding 
the larva in the left hand, enlarge the vent slightly below with 
a vertical cut of the scissors, and next press the extremity 
of the body with the ringers so as to force out the contents 
of the -rectum ; repeat the operation a little farther forward, 
and so on, a slight additional portion of the contents of the 
body being gently pressed out each time. Great care should 
be exercised not to abrade the skin or get the exterior soiled 
by the expelled portions. When a portion of the intestine 
is extended, it should be seized with the forceps and, hold- 
ing the head in the left hand, the tube should be forcibly 
but steadily torn from its attachments bringing with it most 
of the contents of the body. 

The lamp is now lighted and placed under the oven ; and 
a straw taken of a proper size to enter the enlarged vent ; 
having cut off one end diagonally it is moistened and 
carefully inserted into the opening for about a quarter of an 
inch, and then pinned through the straw and anal plate with 
a delicate insect pin. The caterpillar is then inflated with the 
breath, taking care not to use too great a pressure, and then 
extended horizontally in the oven, the inflation being con- 
stantly continued. The posterior end should be dried first 
(by keeping it in the hottest portion) and gradually working 
forward, lastly the head. When all is dry the skin should 
be removed from the straw by careful use of some blunt in- 
strument or the finger nail. 

A piece of wire is then taken, a little over twice the length 
of the larva, and bent into the form shown in fig. 10, the free 
ends being slightly incurved. A drop of shellac dissolved 



30 naturalists' assistant. 

in alcohol is then placed on the loop and the free ends 
are gently inserted into the body until the hinder extremity 
has passed half-way over the loop and the shellac has smeared 
the inside sufficiently to hold the specimen when 
dry. The folded end is then firmly wound around 
an insect pin and the whole, after labelling, is placed 
in a position where it can dry a couple of days be- 
fore removal to the collection. 



MOUNTING SPIDERS. 

Spiders are usually preserved as wet preparations, 
as when dried as insects usually are, the abdomen 
shrinks badly. This, however, can be avoided as 
follows : 

Kill the spider by exposure to some poisonous 
vapor or gas (ether, chloroform or prussic acid) 
and then cut the body in two between the cepha- 
lothorax and abdomen. An insect pin is then 
FlG ' IO ' taken, its head inserted into the abdomen and its 
point into a stick of wood, and then the abdomen is dried 
by placing in the oven mentioned above, or in a test tube 
heated over a spirit lamp. The specimen should be kept 
turning so as to dry all sides evenly. When dry, the pin is 
cut off a short distance from the abdomen and the anterior 
portion of the spider is impaled on the extending part of the 
pin, and then a second pin being passed through the thorax 
(to be used in mounting in the collection), the whole is 
returned to the oven until dry ; it is then labelled and placed 
in the cabinet. 



BREEDING LARVAE. 



31 



BREEDING LARWE. 

The finest specimens of Lepidoptera are obtained by 
rearing from the larval or pupal stages. This is accomplished 
by the use of breeding cages. For this purpose glass tum- 
blers covered with gauze may be employed, but a better thing 




Fig. 11. 

is a box especially prepared for the purpose. Take a wooden 
box without a cover, lay it on its side and tack a lath across 
the lower edge so that a shallow tray is made ; then cover 
the rest of the opening with gauze or mosquito netting- 
Then put a small door in the side, which, by the inversion of 
the box, becomes the top. The box should then have a layer 
of moist earth reaching to the top of the lath. It is fre- 
quently well to subdivide the box as larvae are occasionally 
apt to desert a vegetable diet and eat their companions. 



32 . naturalists' assistant. 

Having prepared the box the larvae should be collected and 
placed in it. With each larva should he collected portions 
of the plant on which it feeds and these should be placed in 
the box, inserting the ends of the twigs in the earth. When 
they show signs of wilting new leaves should be collected 
and the old ones removed. 

Drawings should be made of each species of larvae at its 
various stages, and in the notes which every naturalist should 
keep, should be noted the food plant of the larva, the dates 
of pupation and of the emergence of the imago, and every 
other item which will serve to elucidate the life history ot 
the insect. Frequently it is well, when a female insect has 
been obtained, to attempt to rear others from the egg. The 
insect should be furnished with that kind of food most 
relished by the larva and allowed to deposit its eggs on it. 
The date of oviposition, the size and shape of the eggs with 
their markings and ornamentation and the date of hatching, 
should be carefully preserved by means of notes and drawings. 
Many of the coleopterous and dipterous larvae are car- 
nivorous and should be supplied with meat. Other larvae are 
aquatic and these must be reared in aquaria, over the top of 
which gauze or musquito netting has been stretched. The 
breeding cage should be kept in a light, airy position but 
should not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The 
earth in the bottom should be kept moist, otherwise the 
health of the larva is endangered. 

Mcst larvae enter the pupa stage in the fall, some climbing 
up the wall of the cage and spinning a cocoon, while others 
burrow in the earth and there pass the chrysalis portion of 



BREEDING LARVAE. 33 

their life. At the approach of cold weather, the breeding 
cage should be removed to the cellar and kept there until 
spring. The collector in his trips through the woods and 
fields will find many pupae ; these should be brought home 
and placed in the breeding cage and the imago obtained. 
This method of breeding insects in confinement has many 
advantages, the most prominent being that the imagos ob- 
tained are perfect and not in that rubbed condition which is 
frequent in those caught with the net. 

Occasionally, a larva will fail to go through its proper 
changes. This is generally caused by the presence of some 
parasite. The most common of these parasites are Ichneu- 
mon larvae. The adult ichneumon stings the larva and lays 
its eggs ; these hatch and the progeny live on the juices and 
tissues of its host until at last it succumbs, and then the para- 
sites go through their changes and finally emerge as perfect 
insects. These ichneumon flies should be carefully preserved 
with full notes of the host, etc. 

Spiders and Myriapods may be found everywhere and are 
best preserved in spirit. With spiders should be preserved 
careful notes of colors, and the form of the web, whether 
vertical or horizontal, flat or dome shaped, etc. Especial 
pains should be taken to collect the male which is much 
smaller than the female and is frequently found with it. The 
two cannot be kept together alive as the female is so fond 
of her mate that she frequently eats him. Myriapods are 
rather difficult to preserve, because their integument is so 
thick that the alcohol does not readily penetrate and therefore 
the tissues of the body decay and the specimen falls to pieces. 
3 



34 naturalists' assistant. 

If a few of the rings be punctured so as to admit the spirit 
to the interior of the body this may be prevented. The 
spirit should also be frequently changed during the first few 
days. 

Along with the myriapods will generally be found the ter- 
restrial Crustacea (Oniscidce), known under the common 
names of " Sow-bugs " and " Pill-bugs." These should also 
be carefuly collected and preserved. These forms are 
greatly desired as they have been almost wholly neglected 
by American naturalists and but little is known of our native 
species. Many of them, however, seem to be identical with 
those of Europe, and no one should attempt to describe them 
without access to the works of Brandt, Lereboullet, Kinahan, 
etc. 

MARINE COLLECTING. 

Every portion of the sea teems with life, which varies, not 
only according to geographical position but also with depth, 
character of bottom, temperature of water, etc., etc. In 
different circumstances different methods are employed for 
collecting. 

Certain forms, principally Amphipod Crustacea and shells, 
may be found on the shore much above high-water mark. 
Twice during the day the receding tide leaves a portion of 
the shore uncovered, and this portion " between tide marks" 
has its peculiar fauna. For collecting here, one should 
wear rubber boots and be equipped with bottles, forceps, etc. 
There should be a considerable variety in the bottles em- 
ployed. A good idea is to have four or six large jars with 



MARINE COLLECTING. 



35 



wide mouths kept upright in a basket ; one jar may be partly 
filled with alcohol and corked, the others are to contain salt 
water, and should remain open. In the pockets of the col- 
lector should be carried a large number of " homoeopathic 
vials," some empty and others with alcohol. A spade and a 
long-handled net will also prove useful. Many forms will be 
found in the seaweed covering the rocks • the rocks them- 
selves should be closely examined, turning them over for the 
purpose if possible, and the mud of the shore should be 
turned up with the spade for worms, shells, etc. The speci- 




FlG. 12. 

mens should be placed in one of the jars of water unless it 
be thought best to place certain forms at once in alcohol. 

For collecting the forms from that portion which is never 
uncovered other methods have to be employed. Dredging is 
the principal one, others are the use of the trawl, the "tangle," 
"pumping," etc. 

The dredge, fig. 1 2 is a rectangular frame of iron with two 
scrapers so that it will work no matter which side up it may fall. 
To this frame a net is laced by means of copper wire passed 
through holes in the scrapers and around the frame at the end. 
This net should be surrounded with a stout canvas or leather 



3« 



naturalists' assistant. 



cover, so that it will not catch and tear on rocks, etc., on the 
bottom. Iron handles are attached to the frame, and to one 
of these the dredge rope is tied ; the other handle is made 
fast to the rope by means of a bit of " spun yarn " or lighter 
cord, as shown in fig. 13. The object of this is that, if the 
dredge be caught on a rock, the smaller cord will break and 
the dredge free itself. A weight should be attached to the 

rope a short distance 
(six to twelve feet) in 
front of the dredge, so 
that its mouth may be 
kept on the bottom. The 
length of rope paid out 
should be about twice 
the depth of the water 
in which the dredging is 
conducted. In dredging 
from a sail-boat it is best, 
if possible, to take ad- 
vantage of the currents. 
Put the dredge over the 
bows, taking care that it 
does not turn inside out 
or foul while going down, then let the boat drift as though 
she were dragging an anchor. Where currents are not strong 
enough the boat head should be turned toward the wind, so 
that it will just move through the water, and then put the 
dredge over the windward side near the stern. The boat will 
then drift slowly, drawing the dredge over the bottom. 







Fig. 



MARINE COLLECTING. $7 

It is advisable to have the end of the dredge rope fastened 
by a "safety cord," that is, a small cord tied around the 
dredge rope and made fast to a cleat. Thus, in case the 
dredge suddenly catch, the strain will break the smaller cord 
and allow time for the boat to be turned around without 
breaking the rope and loosing the dredge. When dredging 
from a large boat in deep water this is absolutely indispen- 
sable, if any regard be had for the preservation of the 
collecting apparatus. An experienced person can judge of 
the character of the bottom, the condition of the dredge, 
etc., by the tremor of the dredge rope. 

When full, the dredge should be pulled up, its contents 
poured into sieves and then washed with water. The sieves 
employed should be made of copper wire and have fine 
meshes. They may be so arranged as to hang over the side 
of the vessel, or they may be placed in a trough which will 
carry away the dirty water without soiling the boat. When 
washed, the contents of the dredge are picked over and the 
specimens preserved according to their character. While this 
operation is in progress, the dredge may be down gathering 
new treasures. 

The trawl, fig. 14, generally consists of a long beam, six to 
ten feet in length, bearing a runner on each end, and attached 
to the beam is a long net whose lower edge is weighted with 
lead. This net should have several "pockets" and the 
hinder end should have an opening, secured with a string. 
The trawl is attached to the rope and used in a similar manner 
to the dredge. It can only be used on smooth bottoms free 
from rocks, and catches the fishes, shrimps, hydroids, etc., 



38 naturalists' assistant. 

which affect such places. Sometimes, instead of having a 
"beam," the trawl has two "wings" made of wood and 
loaded on one edge so that they maintain an upright position. 
These wings are attached to the rope after the fashion of a 
kite so that the passage through the water forces them widely 
apart. In this form, the upper edge of the net should be 
floated with cork. 

The tangle, fig. 15, is another piece of apparatus for 




Fig. 



marine collecting and is useful for obtaining such bottom 
forms as are covered with spines. It consists of an iron bar, 
having on each end a wheel. To the bar are attached about 
half a dozen chains, each chain having every few inches 
bunches of hemp or untwisted rope. Such animals as the 
Starfish, Brittle-stars and Shrimps, become entangled in the 
bunches and are thus brought to the surface. 

Another method of obtaining forms from the bottom is by 
pumping. This was first employed by Meyer and Mobius in 



MARINE COLLECTING. 



39 



their investigations of the fauna of the Bay of Kiel. A pump 
was so arranged that the lower end of the pipe was within a 
few inches of the bottom, and the forms brought up by the 
current were col- 
lected by nets and 
sieves. 

Between the bot- 
tom and surface 
other forms may be 
found; to collect 
these a sunken net, 
first used by Baur, is 
employed. 

The surface of the 
sea at times is cov- 
ered with infusoria 
(Noctiluca, etc.), 
jelly fishes, larval E- 
chinoderms, Worms 
and Crustacea, Cop- 
epoda, Salpag, Sa- 
gittae, etc. To ob- 
tain these the surface 
net is employed, 
fig. 1 6. This con- 
sists of a ring of 
brass wire about a FlG ' I5 ' 

foot and a half in .diameter, to which is attached a net of 
fine gauze. This is towed through the water, being frequently 




40 naturalists' assistant. 

pulled in and washed in a bucket of water. On placing 
this water in the light it will be seen to be filled with 
microscopic forms. The best time and place for using the 
net are in protected harbors when the surface is smooth and 
the sea phosphorescent. A place where two currents meet is 
especially productive. Surface skimming was first employed 
by Johannes Muller. 

After storms, it is well to examine the beaches to obtain 
the deep water forms which have been cast on shore. 
Among the "roots " of the " Devils' aprons " (Laminaria) 




Fig. 



will be found shells and starfish, while on the fronds frequently 
occur Sertularians and Bryozoa. 

Fish stomachs are another source of obtaining deep-water 
forms, and they frequently contain rare shells. The fish 
themselves should be carefully examined for external and 
internal parasites. 

The collections should be cared for as soon as possible, as 
many forms soon badly decompose. With each. package of 
specimens should be placed a label, written with soft pencil 
on stout paper, giving exact data of locality, depth, character 



MARINE COLLECTING. 4 1 

of bottom, date, etc. The smaller specimens should be 
placed in homoeopathic vials and not mixed with larger forms. 
For larger forms the common glass fruit jars are convenient, 
both for collecting and as storage jars. 

For the majority of marine forms, alcohol is the best pre- 
servative. The specimen should be first placed in weak spirit 
and after a few hours transferred to stronger and this process 
again repeated. By this the water is gradually extracted and all 
undue contraction of tissues avoided. Crustacea and mollusks 
intended for dissection should have the shell cut or cracked 
before placing in alcohol so that the spirit may readily pene- 
trate the soft parts which otherwise would rapidly decay. 

Medusae and some other forms are not readily preserved 
without great distortion, owing to the extremely large per- 
centage of water in their composition. Various processes 
and preparations have been employed, but success is as much 
the result of accident as of any especial skill or of any superior 
merit in the preservative. Possibly the best method is to 
place the jelly-fish for a short time in a one-tenth to one- 
twentieth per cent solution of osmic acid, and then transfer 
to fifty per cent alcohol and after a few days place in sixty 
per cent spirit. Another method is to employ a solution of 
bay salt of a specific gravity of 1.14S, to each quart of which 
two ounces of alum have been added. The specimen is 
daily changed to a fresh portion of the solution for a week. 
Methylated spirit, 30 under proof, with forty drops of creosote 
to the quart has also been recommended. 

It is frequently desirable to preserve animals in their ex- 
panded condition. So far as the writer is aware no method 
3* 



42 naturalists' assistant. 

has been found in which gasteropods can be so preserved, 
though many experiments have been tried. Sea anemones, 
etc., may be readily killed expanded by gradually adding 
picric acid to the vessel in which they are contained. An- 
other way is to allow them to die in sea water which has 
become stale. The former method, however, is the most 
successful. Fresh-water Polyzoa, it is said, may be killed in 
an expanded condition by adding a few drops of alcohol or 
brandy to the water in which they are living. 

Should it be desired to preserve the shell of a mollusk 
without the animal, the whole may be macerated in water 
and the contents carefully washed away. Bivalves should 
have the two halves carefully tied together, while care should 
be taken to preserve the operculum of such gasteropods as 
possess it, as it has considerable systematic value. 

The same methods may be employed in collecting fresh- 
water invertebrata as in marine. Ponds and lakes can readily 
be dredged and a trawl or siene will frequently bring up 
numbers of rare forms. The beds of rivers contain numer- 
ous shells (Strepomatidse, Viviparidae, Limnseidse, Unionidse 
and Cycladidse), for which careful search should be made. 
A dipper, with a perforated bottom, on a long stick, is fre- 
quently a handy substitute for a dredge, in shallow water. 

Land shells are most numerous in a limestone country. A 
good place to hunt for them is under boards or fallen leaves. 




LABELLING AND MOUNTING. 



CHAPTER II. 



LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 

It is on these two points, labelling and mounting, that 
much of the instructiveness of a museum or collection de- 
pends. The labelling conveys the information regarding 
the specimen, while the mounting places the specimen in the 
best position for observation and study. 

LABELLING. 

The labels used should, in size, be in proportion not only 
to the size and prominence of the specimen, but also in re- 
lation to the amount of information to be conveyed. It is 
best to have but few sizes and to have a certain amount of 
regularity in the labels employed. The most useful size is 
one inch by two and one-half inches, but larger and smaller 
ones must be occasionally used and the sizes of t^iese must be 
selected by those in charge of the collections. The smallest, 
except those for insects, should measure not less than one- 
half by one and one-half inches. For insects a label of one- 
half by three-fourths of an inch is very useful. The labels 
of whatever size employed should be as plain as possible and 

(45) 



46 naturalists' assistant. 

the printing should be confined to a simple border. This 
border possibly looks best when printed in red ink, and that 
color is employed for the purpose by most museums. Heavy 
paper or cardboard is best for the labels. When the label 
is to be pasted, paper is preferable, but in all other cases the 
cardboard possesses the greater advantages. 

As mentioned above, the purpose of the label is to convey 
information and this should be expressed in as concise and 
plain a manner as possible. In some museums (e. g., that of 
the Boston Society of Natural History), all labels are the 
product of the printer's art and several copies of each are 
struck off at once, thus affording a supply from which to re- 
plenish as those on the specimens become defaced or injured. 
The expense for this is far less than would be supposed. 

In the majority of cases, however, this plan, cheap as it 
has been found to be, is beyond the means of museums and 
hence the labels should be written. This writing should 
be done with black ink and in a legible hand, the ordinary 
"marking hand" being well adapted for this purpose. For 
ink, there is nothing better than India ink ground up in 
acetic acid. Windsor and Newton's liquid India ink is thus 
prepared and is handiest for the purpose. When it becomes 
thick by evaporation, it can be diluted by the use of acetic 
acid. Do not use water to dilute it as then the ink is spoiled. 

The principal points which are usually to be enumerated 
on a label are the generic and specific names, locality, date, 
collector and donor. The adjoined label copied from one in 
the Boston Society's museum shows the usual form. The 
generic name should always begin with a capital, but opinions 



LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 



47 



differ as to the initial of the specific, but with Americans the 
weight of authority seems to be in favor of always beginning 
the specific name with a small letter whether derived from a 
proper name or not. It should not under any view begin 
with a capital unless derived from a proper name. Following 
the scientific name comes the "authority." Here again 
opinions differ, some claiming that the name of the person 
who first described the species should be given, no matter 
whether it belong to the genus under which it originally was 
described or not. Others claim that the name to be used is 



Cat llll Orig. 1557 

Nanemys guttata (Sch.) Ag. 

SPECKLED TORTOISE. 

S. Kneeland. Cohasset, Mass. 



Fig. 17. 

that of the person who first used the generic and specific 
name together. A third party adopt a compromise and give 
both names together, that of the describer of the species in 
parenthesis, followed by that of the one who first used the 
generic and specific combination which is adopted. For in- 
stance, Herbst, in 1796, described a hermit crab under the 
name Cancel- sclopetarius. In 1852, Dana characterized the 
genus Cliba?iarius, and in 1859, Stimpson ascertained that 
Herbst's species should be assigned to Dana's genus. Now 
according to the first method the name would be written 
Clibanarius sclopetarius Herbst ; according to the second 



48 



naturalists' assistant. 



Clibanarius sdopetarius Stimpson ; while the latter would be 
Clibanarius sdopetarius (Herbst) Stimpson. The second 
and third methods are most commonly adopted, the third 
expressing more than the others. The best authorities omit 
any comma between the scientific name and the authority. 

Should the specimen be a type, an abnormal form or im- 
mature stage, or possess any important features, that fact 
should be noticed on the label. The original labels coming 
with a specimen should be scrupulously preserved in con- 
nection with it, as they give 
a value and authenticity 
which the specimen could 
not otherwise have. 

Various methods have 
been devised for affixing 
labels to specimens. When 
the object is fastened to 
a tablet, it is best to affix 
the label with paste or mucilage, or with short pins, one 
at each end of the label. A mucilage made of equal 
parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic in water, to which 
a few drops of glycerine and carbolic acid have been added, 
is possibly as good as any for fastening paper to wood, glass, 
stone or metal. In all other cases the label holder devised 
by the late Caleb Cooke is very advantageous. It is readily 
made by folding a strip of thin tin one-eighth of an inch in 
width in the manner shown in fig. 18. The label is placed in 
the folds shown above and below {a and b) which are then 
closed with a pair of pincers. The label and holder are then 




LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 



49 



fastened to the object holding the specimen. In the case of 
a bird stand or wooden tablet, this is effected by perforating 
the end c and then using a tack. When applied to a bottle, 
copper wire is used. The end c is folded around the wire 
and the wire then placed around the neck of the bottle and 
the ends twisted tightly. The advantages of this method are 
many ; the label is firmly held and at the same time can be 
readily removed by loosening the 
folds with a knife. All original labels 
can be safely preserved out of sight 
by placing between the public label 
and the tin strip. The labels are 
also kept flat and by bending the tin 
at b can be readily disposed so as to 
be more easily read when on a high 
or low shelf. 

In the case of alcoholic speci- 
mens a label should always be kept 
in the bottle, as well as one on the 
outside. This label should be 
written with a soft lead pencil, or 
with India ink dissolved in acetic 
acid (never with common ink) on parchment or very strong 
paper. This label, which is intended only for the student 
and curator, should contain every item of information re- 
garding the specimens. 

Insect labels should be kept on the pin and should be small. 
It is usual in arranging insects to place them in rows and 
then in the farther left hand corner is placed the family label, 




Fig. 



5° naturalists' assistant. 

next comes the generic, and then the specific ; the insects 
belonging to the species are then extended in a transverse 
row and following them on the left of the case, comes the 
next specific label and so on. Some have adopted a method 
of showing the geographical distribution of forms at a glance 
by the color of the label, and in geological collections the 
"age" by the same method, but it is doubtful if it repays 
the extra trouble involved. 

Labels can be obtained of "regular" sizes of most dealers 
in naturalists' supplies at a cheaper rate than they can be 
produced by local printers. Generic and specific names for 
labelling certain groups of insects are also kept on sale and 
well repay the cost. 

Catalogues are important, though some of the largest mu- 
seums almost wholly dispense with them. The best results 
follow the use of the double system employing both books 
and cards. In a book prepared for the purpose, each speci- 
men is entered as received, with all possible information. 
For this the books should be ruled in columns for the follow- 
ing entries : original number, current number, number of 
specimens, name, sex and age, where collected, when col- 
lected, by whom collected, donor, remarks. A number is 
then affixed to the specimens corresponding to the entry in 
the book catalogue. Sheets of printed numbers for this 
purpose are kept for sale by dealers in naturalists' supplies. 
Where possible, parchment numbers should be used and tied 
to the specimen. Even better than parchment is the method, 
which is now extensively adopted, of stamping the number 
on sheet zinc with the steel punches which may be bought at 






LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 



any hardware store and then affixing the zinc to the speci- 
men with stout twine or small copper wire. It is, however, 
difficult by any ordinary method to affix a label permanently 
to a fossil or mineral ; strings and wires will become loose 
and paste and gum will crack off. In such case, the writer 
has adopted the method of putting on each specimen (in the 
least conspicuous place) a small spot of white paint, and on 
this, when dry, the number is written with a pen ; there is no 
danger of such a label being detached and lost. In the 
book catalogue the specimens are arranged simply accord- 
ing to number and without regard to systematic relations, 
which are to be found in the card catalogue. 

This card catalogue is made of cards arranged alphabeti- 
cally or otherwise as may be desired, each bearing at the top 
the generic and specific name and below the desired informa- 
tion. These cards should be about three by five inches ; 
their appearance, etc., are best seen from the following dia- 
gram. 





ARIUS EQUESTRIS.— 


BAIRD AND GIRARD. 


Cat. 
No. 


No. 
Spec. 


Age. 


Locality. 


When 
collected. 


Nature. 


Collected by- 


836 
1142 


1 
4 


Adult 
Young 


Indianola, 

Tex. 

Brownsville, 

Tex. 


18:4 
April 25, 1858. 


Skull 

Al- 
coholic 


John H.Clark. 

Capt. 

Van Vliet. 



By this system of book and card catalogues, it can at 
once be seen exactly what specimens the museum contains, 
and also, if the number be preserved, any lost labels can be 



52 naturalists' assistant. 

duplicated. It is convenient to have the catalogues subdi- 
vided into groups corresponding to the larger divisions of the 
animal kingdom, others for minerals, fossils, etc. The cards 
can then be kept in drawers or trays and any necessary in- 
terpolations can be made as desired. Cards suitable for this 
can be obtained of standard sizes at the Readers' and Writers' 
Economy stores in Boston, New York and other large cities. 



MOUNTING SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION. 

Mammals and birds designed for exhibition are usually 
stuffed and mounted on stands. It does not fall within the 
scope of this work to describe the methods employed by the 
taxidermist in stuffing skins. It is well enough, however, to 
reiterate the advice given on another page that the stand em- 
ployed should be as simple as possible and all mica dust, 
moss and artificial leaves be discarded as they detract greatly 
from the appearance of a collection when viewed from a 
scientific standpoint. On the underside of each stand, all 
information regarding the specimen should be written with 
a soft lead pencil, paint or India ink. Skeletons and skulls 
should be supported on wires firmly fixed at their lower end 
in a board. Ward's preparations are models in this respect. 

Birds' eggs may be kept in the nest in which they belong. 
Should the nest be wanting, the eggs present a very hand- 
some appearance when placed in paper trays lined with pink 
cotton wool. The most common method, however, is to 






MOUNTING SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION. 53 

mount on wooden tablets. These wooden tablets, which are 
very generally adopted in museums for specimens of all kinds, 
should be made of whitewood. The grain of pine shows too 
plainly while basswood warps badly. It is best to have them 
made with a depression in which to mount the specimen and 
an elevated portion on which to affix the label. The form is 
shown in section in fig. 20. These can be made in long 



I 



r \ ^j? / 



Fig. 20. 

strips at any planing mill and then sawed up in lengths to 
suit. The sizes should be so adjusted that two of the smallest 
will equal the next in size and so on. They then readily fit 
together and fill up a case without any bad gaps. The 
smallest should be one inch wide by two long, the next in 
size two inches square, then two by four, etc. 

These tablets are usually painted dead black. A cheap 
way of accomplishing this is with lampblack mixed with 
spirits of turpentine and a very little oil. This, however, is 
apt to rub off slightly and soil the hands and cases. A more 
expensive paint, which produces the best results, is the ivory 
black used by carriage makers. This should be mixed with 
a little shellac varnish and applied with a brush. Sometimes 



54 NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 

different colors are used for these tablets ; this in the case 
of geological collections has its advantages, as different for- 
mations may be indicated by the color of the tablet bearing 
the specimen. The general effect, however, is not so good as 
when a uniform black is employed in all departments of the 
museum. Various substitutes for the wooden tablets have 
been proposed and each has its advocates. Pasteboard, 
slate and glass have all been used, but wood, taking every- 
thing into consideration, is the best. 

The specimens are affixed to these tablets in various ways. 
A common method is with "grafting wax." The grafting 
wax, such as is used by gardeners, is kept melted in a glue 
pot over a spirit lamp and a drop taken up with a brush and 
placed in the desired spot on the tablet and the specimen 
placed on it, and a few moments only are required to set the 
wax and hold the specimen firmly. If at any time it be de- 
sired to remove the object from the tablet, a knife blade 
slightly warmed will accomplish it, and all wax may be cleaned 
from the specimen by alcohol or turpentine. Others employ 
sealing wax dissolved in alcohol, or common glue, for fasten- 
ing the specimens, but while they hold the object securely, 
it cannot be as readily removed. 

Many minute forms (shells, etc.) cannot be fastened di- 
rectly to the tablets and at such times small homoeopathic 
vials are used. The specimens are placed in these and the 
vials are then stopped with a cork or a bit of cotton wool, 
and then cemented to the tablet by wax or glue. A label 
should always be placed in each vial. A great desideratum 



BOTTLES AND VIALS. 55 

for this purpose is a vial of quadrangular outline with clear 
flat sides. 

In the case of the large branching corals (gorgonias, madre- 
pores, etc.), a square box is taken and filled with plaster of 
Paris mixed with water ; the coral is then placed in this in 
an upright position and supported until the plaster sets. The 
box is then taken apart and all rough places smoothed with a 
case knife, and then the plaster is painted with lampblack 
and turpentine. This forms a heavy base which holds the 
specimen uprightly. The label may be applied to this base. 
The coarse " builders' " plaster should be used for this pur- 
pose, as it is much stronger (as well as much cheaper) than 
the fine. 

BOTTLES AND VIALS. 

In every museum, vessels of glass are largely employed 
and form a considerable item of expense. For exhibition 
purposes, pains should be taken to obtain clear glass, free 
from bubbles and irregularities producing distortion in the 
view of the specimen. Glass stoppered vials and jars also 
are preferable as they not only add to the appearance of the 
collection, but they are less liable to leak, and permit the 
alcohol to escape by evaporation than are those with corks. 
The mouth of jars, vials, etc., should be as large as possible 
so that specimens proportionate to the size of the bottle may 
be readily admitted ; otherwise a larger amount of alcohol is 
required than is necessary for the preservation of the specimen. 



56 naturalists' assistant. 

It is best in the case of minute specimens to place them in 
homoeopathic vials with alcohol, then stop the vial with cork 
and place the whole, cork downward, in a larger bottle which 
in turn is to be filled with alcohol. This renders it easy at 
any time to find the specimen which would not be the case 
were it loose in a large bottle, while the alcohol in the outer 
vial will have to evaporate until the cork of the smaller is 
reached before there is the slightest danger of the contents 
of the inner bottle being injured. 

The best homoeopathic vials for museum purposes are 
those made with straight sides without any neck or shoulder, 
as then the inside can be readily cleansed and all specimens 
can be readily taken out for examination. Rubber stoppers 
do not answer overwell for museifm purposes, as the alcohol 
is apt to affect them and to set free the earth with which 
they are adulterated, and cover the objects with a dense 
white precipitate. 

In the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, 
oval glass jars with flat sides are used for starfishes and 
ophiurians. The mouth of the jar is ground and covered 
with a glass plate fastened by cement and also by a strip of 
tinfoil extending on both the glass cover and the sides of the 
jar. The specimen is spread on glass or mica plates and fas- 
tened with thread, bristles or silvered wire, and the whole 
placed in the spirit. 

Dissections of animal forms are preserved in alcohol by 
extending on some substance not affected by the spirit. The 
principal ones employed are mica, glass and wax. The ob- 



BOTTLES AND VIALS. 57 

ject is fastened to the glass or mica by strings passed through 
holes bored for the purpose. These holes can readily be bored 
in glass, with a three-cornered file moistened with spirits of 
turpentine and mounted in a drillstock. When wax is used 
the specimen is fixed with insect pins. It is well to blacken the 
wax by melting it and stirring in lampblack. This forms a 
good background against which all details are readily seen. 
Great care should be exercised in selecting the wax, which 
should be pure. The common adulterations of wax are water, 
tallow and lard, and the presence of either of these produces 
a flocculent precipitate in alcohol, which settles on the spec- 
imen and ruins it, as it is very difficult to remove. 

For storage purposes it is not necessary to use so good a 
quality of glass as for exhibition. A very useful article is the 
ordinary fruit jar with glass cover and screw top. The rub- 
ber of these jars will occasionally have to be renewed as the 
alcohol hardens the rubber and renders it brittle. At other 
times large copper cans are used, fitted with wide openings 
secured by screw covers, while for the largest forms special 
tanks of copper or zinc are made. A barrel can be readily 
fitted up for containing specimens, by carefully smoothing 
off one end, removing the head and adjusting a wooden 
cover with rubber packing over the end. To the sides of the 
barrel are attached iron bars terminated by screws and these 
project through the lid and by means of nuts fasten it 
tightly. In any of these large storage vessels, numerous 
small specimens may be kept by wrapping each (with its 
label) in millinet, mosquito bar or coarse cotton cloth. The 



58 naturalists' assistant. 

same course may be pursued when sending specimens from 
the field or from one museum to another. With fishes so 
sent it is usual to place the labels under the gill covers. 

Smaller specimens may be stored in cork-stoppered bot- 
tles. A cheap way of obtaining these is to buy the empty 
morphine and quinine bottles of the apothecary. These 
are of good glass and have wide mouths. Corks for these 
may readily be rendered tight by immersing in melted par- 
afrme, or better in paraffine dissolved in benzine. These 
storage bottles should be so arranged that any desired spec- 
imen can readily be found. 

One thing that should be constantly kept in mind in the 
museum is that it is as easy to have too much on exhibition 
as too little. The primary object of a collection is to in- 
struct, but with many confusion only results. Every speci- 
men should not be on exhibition ; nor should every species 
or genus. It should be the object of the curator to make 
the collection typical; to select those species which best 
illustrate the larger groups, while all others are relegated 
to drawers, boxes, etc., where they will be readily accessible to 
the special student but will not aid in confusing the average 
museum visitor. 

The space thus gained should be utilized by labels and 
cards, conveying in plain language the characters of the va- 
rious groups. It is also well to place in the cases drawings 
illustrating the structure and growth of the various classes of 
the animal kingdom. These may be plain or colored ac- 
cording to nature, or conventionally, to show more clearly 



BOTTLES AND VIALS. 59 

the details of structure. The following conventional colors 
are generally adopted : 

Red, heart and arterial circulation. 

Blue, veinous circulation. 

Green, li\et. 

Purple, kidneys. 

Yellow, ovaries. 

Orange, testes. 

Brown, alimentary canal. 

Neutral tint, nerves. 

Large labels can be easily written with the "Audiographic 
Pen," invented by Mr. D. S. Holman, of Philadelphia. This 
has since been extensively sold under the name of "Automatic 
shading Pen," and can be obtained at any stationery store. 




ROOMS AND CASES, 



CHAPTER III. 



ROOMS AND CASES. 

In a work intended for all classes of naturalists, no definite 
rules can be laid down to govern in each case the construction 
of the home of the collections. In many instances, the mu- 
seum is a private one and is kept in a room of the dwelling 
house ; between this and such immense collections as those 
of the British Museum and the Jardin des Plantes, every 
gradation may be found, each requiring peculiar accommo- 
dations. 

In the case of private collections, a room should be se- 
lected, if possible having a northern exposure, well lighted 
and fitted up with conveniences suitable to the nature of the 
specimens. The windows should be screened with curtains 
of yellow "holland" as this color tends to exclude the ac- 
tinic rays of light and to preserve the specimens from fading. 

For larger collections, such as are possessed by most col- 
leges and many societies, more extensive accommodations are 
necessary and a building should be especially devoted to 
them. The average college museum building is but poorly 
adapted for its purpose ; it is the result of consulting archi- 
tects who know nothing of the requisites of such edifices. 

(63) 



64 naturalists' assistant. 

The architect draws some showy or striking "elevation" with 
useless towers and spires and narrow windows, and leaves in- 
ternal arrangements to chance. The result is an ill contrived 
building, with inaccessible and useless rooms, numerous dark 
corners and disagreeable cross lights. But the greatest dis- 
advantage lies in the impossibility of maintaining anything 
like a systematic arrangement of the collections. The proper 
way is first to arrange the rooms and apartments and 
then to accommodate the walls and the roof to them. It 
would be well for all having charge of the erection of build- 
ings for the display of specimens of Natural History to visit 
some of the larger museum buildings such as those at Bos- 
ton, Cambridge, New Haven and Washington and consult 
with the authorities there in charge as to the advantages and 
disadvantages of the building occupied by them. It might 
also be an advantage to visit the museums of New York, 
Princeton and above all Philadelphia, 1 to see how a museum 
building should not be constructed. 

The following plan is here inserted as a hint which might 
be useful in the construction of a building of moderate size. 
It contains some features of value but can of course be mod- 
ified to suit circumstances. It is primarily designed for the 
use of the average college. 

1 The cases at Princeton are (or, were, at the writer's visit) worse if possible than the 
building, while no museum building could be less adapted for its purpose than that 
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Those collections of Europe 
which are tucked away in the corners of some old castle or which are displayed in the 
cloisters of some former monastery are fully as well provided for. The building is the 
result of architects working without intelligent supervision and was constructed by the 
Academy in direct opposition to the views of its best scientific members. 






ROOMS. 



65 



It consists of a main portion and a wing each two stories 
in height. The main portion is a square of say fifty feet. 
The walls are solid, there being no windows in the sides. 



DOOR- 









TABLf CASE 








T 








T 








T 








T 







g jp-ARGH 



T 


1 




T 




T 


1 




7 


1 




T 





LECTURE ROOM. 



Fig. 21. 



The second floor consists of merely a gallery and thus the 
whole of the main building is a single room, and lighted by 
a lantern window in the roof. The walls are occupied on 



66 



naturalists' assistant. 



both floors with vertical cases, and the lower floor is taken up 
with* table cases which are best for all specimens except 
mounted vertebrates and alcoholic collections. The gallery is 











X 

z. 


\ 


s 








RAIL CA3ES 














1 









STUDY 


F=> 






X 
LABORATORY 1 x 

LZ 






LIBRARY 





Fig. 22. 



surrounded with a railing and this may also bear horizontal 



cases. 



Connected with the main portion by arches, on each floo» 



BUILDINGS . 67 

is a wing of say thirty feet square. This wing is lighted by 
windows in the ordinary way and contains on the ground floor 
a hall with stairs leading to the basement and the second story ; 
a closet for the janitor and a lecture room. On the second 
floor are the laboratory, a room for necessary books of refer- 
ence, and a small study for the professor or curator in charge. 
In the basement can be placed the means of heating ; room 
for the storage of specimens, macerating rooms, etc. If pos- 
sible, both basement and laboratory should be supplied with 
water. 

For museums of the larger class, this plan will of course 
prove inadequate and some other must be adopted. The 
architect and others having the erection of a museum in 
charge should visit the larger museums and consult with those 
having them in charge. * 

A museum building should always, if possible, be isolated 
and built in the most thoroughly fire-proof manner. The walls 
should be of brick or stone, the girders, joists, etc., of iron, 
and the floors of brick, iron, slate or some other incombusti- 
ble material. Museums are far too valuable to be entrusted to 
wooden buildings and even those thought to be fire-proof have 
not always proved so. The fires at Portland and Chicago 
each destroyed valuable collections stored in buildings which 
were supposed to be secure against the devouring element. 

One feature which should be adopted in every museum 
building is adequate provision for laboratory work. In col- 
lege museums this is best accomplished by having a large 
room where all can be at once under the supervision of the 
instructor. In buildings for society purposes it is better to 



68 naturalists' assistant. 

have a number of small rooms for this, which may be occu- 
pied by those of the members who care to do any work in 
the building. In the Philadelphia Academy building these 
rooms are in alcoves leading from the Library ; in the Bos- 
ton Society's Building there are two on each floor leading 
from the exhibition halls ; in the New York Museum they are 
all on the upper floor of the building. 



cases. 

The cases are by no means an unimportant portion of a mu- 
seum and great care should be taken in their construction. 
It will not do to leave them entirely to a builder or cabinet 
maker ; a naturalist should also be consulted. From an omis- 
sion in this respect the cases in many museums are poorly 
constructed. Notable examples are to be found in the in- 
stances of Brown University and Princeton and Williams Col- 
leges. At Brown the cases are very loosely constructed, leav- 
ing large holes for the entrance of dust and vermin ; at 
Princeton the extent of sash nearly equals that of glass, ren- 
dering it almost impossible to see the specimens on ac- 
count of darkness ; while those at Williams cannot be tightly 
closed and the shelves are permanent and cannot be altered 
in height. On the other hand, the cases of the American 
Museum in New York, Yale College and the Peabody Mu- 
seum of Archaeology at Cambridge are models, but are very 
expensive. The cases of the Peabody Academy of Science 
at Salem, Mass., are very good and others can be built; like 



CASES. 69 

them at a cost not exceeding that of a poor case. It would 
be well for those having charge of the equipment of a mu- 
seum to visit these four museums before building their own, 
and thus avoid the endless grumbling and dissatisfaction 
which might otherwise follow. 

Cases for exhibition may be divided into two groups, ver- 
tical and horizontal. The former are generally either placed 
against the wall or are used to divide the exhibition room 
into alcoves. Each upright case should have its own floor, 
the floor of the room never being employed for that pur- 
pose. Cases placed against the wall should also have their 
own back. Otherwise any settling of the building will pro- 
duce cracks through which dust and vermin find easy access. 
Both floor and back should be made of thoroughly seasoned 
matched lumber, or better still of zinc and should be fastened 
to the rest of the case without the slightest crack. The rest 
of the case should be of well seasoned timber, as light as is 
consistent with strength, while large panes of good glass per- 
mit a clear view of the specimens exhibited. The doors 
should be very firmly made so that they cannot sag and plenty 
of hinges should be used in hanging them. Means should 
be employed of fastening them tightly in at least three places. 
The lock invented by Prof. E. S. Morse, improved and manu- 
factured by Mr. Jenks at Middleboro, Mass., is admirably 
adapted for this purpose. In this lock all bolts act as wedges 
drawing the door closely against the projecting portion of 
the jamb. 

To render the joint between the door and the frame tight, 
several methods have been employed. Sometimes a thin 



7 o 



naturalists' assistant. 



strip of cotton wool has been tacked to the door, at oth- 
ers the door and frame are fitted with tongue and groove. 
This is possibly the best method and is employed in the Yale 
cases. A cheap means has been adopted at the Peabody 
Academy of Science with good results. A thin strip of rub- 
ber packing is folded and fastened by means of a strip of 
wood to the case and against this fold the door closes sending 

the joint all but air- 
tight. The construc- 
tion is readily seen from 
figure 23. The floor of 
a vertical case should 
be some few inches 
above the floor of the 
exhibition room, and the space 
thus left may be occupied by 
drawers for the storage of speci- 
mens. The shelves in an upright 
case should be adjustable to any 
desired height. A perfect method 
of accomplishing this yet remains to be invented. Sometimes 
sticks fitting into ratchets on which the shelves are supported 
are employed, others support the shelves on "screw eyes" 
screwed into the frame of the case. But doubtless the best 
apparatus is the adjustable brackets. Two patterns of these 
are made, one by Mr. Jenks and one by Mr. Gavitt, each 
having its merits and objections. Possibly the former is 
preferable. Each of these employs an iron bracket (hori- 
:ntal or inclined as may be desired) which hooks into an 




Fig. 23. 



CASES. 



n 



iron frame and can be raised or lowered as circumstances de- 
mand, by simply unhooking and placing in another hole. 
These bracket irons should never be affixed to the wall of the 
case but to a post inserted especially for the purpose. 

Upright cases are necessary for alcoholic specimens and 
mounted mammals and birds ; all other forms, with a very few- 
exceptions are better displayed in horizontal or table cases. 
In the construction of these the same care to make the cases 
tight should be used as in 
vertical cases, and the 
same methods, with slight 
modification, may be used. 
The manner of applying 
the rubber strip is shown 
in fig. 24. It is best to 
make the case deep 
enough to accommodate 
any specimen that may be 
obtained, and then to have 
a false bottom which by 
blocking up will bring the 
contents as near the glass as is desired. It is sometimes 
convenient to have upright cases in connection with the 
horizontal and at such times the form shown in fig. 25 
possesses advantages. Horizontal cases may be clear un- 
derneath, or they may be fitted with glass for the exhibition 
of large specimens, or with drawers. Specimens placed in 
such position cannot be seen to advantage ; while drawers 
afford a large amount of storage room and hence in most 
instances are preferable. 




Fig. 24. 



72 



NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 



Insects are placed on exhibition in trays which are placed 
in horizontal cases. These trays are made of light wood and 
should be about ten by twelve inches by two deep. The 
bottom should be lined with sheet cork, which may be 
procured of any dealer in Naturalists' supplies, and over this 
should be stretched paper so that the whole will present a 
neat appearance. Prof. E. S. Morse has described in the 




Fig. 25. 

pages of the American Naturalist a convenient substitute for 
cork in the bottoms of cases. A rectangular frame of light 
wood strips of such a size as to be readily admitted into the 
tray has stretched upon it sheets of paper, one above and one 
below. The paper may be readily stretched by thoroughly 
wetting it and while wet gluing it to the frame. Thus, when 
dry it is as tight as a drum- head. This papered frame should 
be supported about an eighth of an inch above the bottom 



CASES. 



73 



of the case. The pin bearing the insect is passed through 
both sheets of paper until its point penetrates the wood. 
Thus three points of support are obtained. Other substitutes 
for cork have been proposed, corn stalks elder pith pita, etc., 
but their use is attended with this disadvantage, that the sap 
which they contain produces by fermentation an acid which 
-orrodes a pin. 
Storage cases for insects are usually made in pairs, and 




Fig. 26. 

should have the two parts fitted together by tongue and 
groove. This will be very effectual in excluding vermin. 

A large proportion of the alcoholic specimens of any col- 
lection will be kept in what are known as homoeopathic vials 
and various ways for arranging and keeping these have been 
devised. The common method is by laying them down in 
shallow drawers, but this has the disadvantage of injuring the 
cork by keeping it constantly soaked with alcohol. Mr. 
Emerton has suggested a handy form which is well adapted 



74 



NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 



for laboratory purposes. Its construction is readily seen from 
fig. 27. It consists of a shallow tray with a series of steps, 
the bottles being held in place by rods running along the case. 
When a row is not full, the vials are fastened by a wedge. 



% 



Z7 



qq 



M 

— tub 




Fig. 27. 



This form may stand on the laboratory table or can hang 
against the wall as desired. They can also be hinged to- 
gether in pairs, labelled and placed on shelves, 






CASES. 



75 



Perhaps the best form of case for homoeopathic vials is that 
described by the same gentleman in the American Natura- 
list. Narrow deep drawers are made with the front, bottom, 
back and one side of wood while the other side consists of 
two wires. This holds the bottles in an upright position and 
also admits an easy examination of the contents. These 
drawers may be m de of varying width but in no case should 
the front be less than an inch across. This is none too wide 
for the smallest vials. By making the drawers wider, larger 




Fig. 28. 



vials (one and two oz. can be admitted. The drawers may 
advantageously be four and one-half inches in depth and twelve 
inches in length. The bottles are fastened i.i position with a 
wedge as shown in fig. 2S. These drawers may be placed 
together in a cabinet (fig. 29) and are interchangeable. By 
this means any desired arrangement of the collections can be 
effected, new specimens can be interpolated at any time and 
by having the drawers labelled any desired specimen can be 
at once found. 

Microscopic slides also require special cases. Of these 



76 



naturalists' assistant. 



there are primarily two forms, those in which the specimens 
lie flat and those in which they stand on an edge. The for- 







mer are preferable from the reason that the "mount" is less 
liable to slip. On the other hand they take up much more 



cases. 77 

room. The specimens may be kept flat in drawers sliding in 
a frame or in trays piled one on another and enclosed in a 
light box; the former is the most convenient, the latter the 
more compact. 

When slides stand on their edges they are supported in the 
box by strips of wood in which transverse grooves are cut 
with a saw. In a box of this character many slides may be 
packed in a small compass. Another method which has been 
proposed is to take the frame of an ordinary school slate and 
replace the stone with pasteboard. Rubber cord is then sewed 
through the pasteboard forming clips which support the slides. 
Several of the frames are bound together in book form and 
placed on the shelves. 

The forms of cases above described will answer in the 
majority of instances, but occasionally circumstances will de- 
mand something different. No rules can be laid down to 
cover every condition which may arise ; a use of common 
sense and ingenuity will solve most difficulties. 




THE MICROSCOPE, 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE MICROSCOPE. 



To the student of Nature the microscope is indispensable ; 
he requires it to obtain an enlarged view of the objects he 
studies. The simplest form of microscope is a piece of glass 
with one or both sides convex, and known as a lens. These 




Fig. 30. 

simple lenses are very cheap and still very handy. It is some- 
times desirable to have two or three so mounted that either 
one or more may be used, as occasion demands a greater or 
6 (81) . 



82 naturalists' assistant. 

less amount of amplification. This is frequently obtained by 
an arrangement similar to that shown in fig. 30. For very 
low powers it is convenient to have the style of mounting 
used by watchmakers as this can readily be held by the 
muscles around the eye, leaving both hands free for work. 

With the simple lens there are, however, disadvantages ; as, 
when a clear view is obtained of the centre, objects at the 
margin of the field are blurred and surrounded by rainbow 
hues. 

Various plans have been adopted to avoid these defects 




Fig. 31. 



Fig. 32. 



(known as spherical and chromatic aberration) , the simplest 
is that of the Coddington lens (fig. 31) in which the glass 
has a deep groove cut around* the margin which is filled with 
some black pigment leaving only a small opening in the 
centre. This to a considerable extent does away with the 
color and distortion but at the expense of the brilliancy of 
the view obtained. 

Another, and the better, method of avoiding aberration is 
by having the lens made of different kinds of glass, which 
produce different effects on light and which tend to balance 
each other. These lenses are sold under the names of 



THE MICROSCOPE. 



83 



"doublets " (two pieces of glass), "triplets'" (three pieces), 
"platyscopic lenses," etc. A section of a triplet is shown 
in fig. 32. A good triplet gives a perfectly flat field and is 
free from rainbow hues around the object viewed. 

Some means of support should be devised to hold the 
simple lens. A very simple one may be made by means of 
a block of wood, two bits of stiff iron wire, and a couple of 
corks. The block of wood should be used as a base. In 
its centre one of the pieces of wire should be fixed in an up- 
right position. On this* wire one of the corks should be 




Fig. 33. 

made to slide up and down freely, but not so loosely as to 
slip. Through this cork the second rod should move with 
the same freedom as the first, but at right angles ; and at its 
farther extremity, the second cork, which is shaped to hold 
the lens, should be -fixed. The corks used in this way afford 
a very smooth motion and the apparatus produces good 
results. 

A rather more expensive piece of apparatus for this pur- 
pose is that shown in fig. 33, and which hardly needs any 
explanation. The whole is made of brass and is especially 
adapted for the usual style of mounting triplets. The two 



84 naturalists' assistant. 

joints of the apparatus enable a person to raise and depress 
the lens and still keep it horizontal. The end portion con- 
sists of a piece of brass tube with a slot cut in it to receive 
the cover of the lens. Such an instrument can be made for 
two dollars at the most, and to all intents and purposes will 
serve instead of a dissecting microscope, all forms of which are 
more or less inconvenient. When it is desirable to use trans- 
mitted light, the watch glass or other transparent dish may be 
placed in the mouth of a bottle and thus sufficient light for 
all ordinary purposes can be obtained. 

Dissecting microscopes are advertised by all dealers in 
microscopic goods, but they are but little used by professional 
naturalists, a triplet with a stand answering all their purposes 
and that with few of the many objections which they all 
have. 

The compound microscope is next to be considered. In 
this instrument an inverted image is formed by the lens 
(or combination of lenses) nearest the object (called the 
object glass) and viewed by the other lens nearer the eye 
(the eye-piece or ocular). These lenses are mounted in a 
tube fitted with appliances for bringing them nearer to or re- 
moving them farther from an object placed on the stage. 
Suitable methods are also employed for illuminating the ob- 
ject, and a stand to support the whole completes the list of 
necessary portions. These will now be taken up in order and 
their various requisites discussed. In this the writer is well 
aware that the views advanced are in direct opposition to 
those held by many microscopists, but he is also aware that 
they are in almost full accord with the opinions of those who 



THE MICROSCOPE. 85 

use the instrument as a means of research and not as a play- 
thing. 

First and foremost, the simpler the working parts are, the 
better. Complication means a waste of time with no corre- 
sponding gain. When a microscope becomes a mass of 
machinery with screws, wheels, pinions and a thousand and 
one appliances, its sphere of usefulness is gone. 

The tube of the microscope should be short and, if the 
owner has money for objectives, a draw tube and an ampli- 
fier are utterly useless. The use of a draw tube is to increase 
the length of the tube of the microscope and thus enlarge 
the image formed by the objective, but it must be at once 
evident that the increased size of the image is counterbal- 
anced by a corresponding loss in distinctness and brilliancy. 
But few objectives are made which will stand the strain of 
the higher oculars and a draw tube. The continental workers 
adopt the other method of using objectives of greater mag- 
nifying power to obtain the desired amplification and it is only 
necessary to refer to their published figures to show the 
great superiority of their method. The writer would there- 
fore advise instruments with short tubes, the amplification of 
the image to depend on the objective. 

There should be two methods of regulating the distance 
between the objective and the object : one by which it can 
be rapidly increased or diminished, while the other works at 
a greatly lower rate of speed and thus is suitable for small 
distances. These are called respectively the coarse and fine 
adjustments. There have been many plans for regulating the 
coarse adjustment, but two, however, having any extensive 



86 naturalists' assistant. 

application : by sliding tube, and by rack and pinion. For 
the novbe the latter is the better method but in the hands 
of the experienced person equally good results are readily 
obtained by the former plan. With the sliding tube, the tube 
carrying the lenses is made to slide in a closely fitting collar 
by a screwing motion. The rack and pinion dispense with 
the collar and move the tube by a toothed wheel, working 
into a straight bar fitted with similar teeth. The great ob- 
jection to this is that the teeth wear rapidly, thus allowing 
more or less "play" and causing the tube to move by jerks, 
a serious disadvantage. 

The methods employed for securing the fine adjustment 
are still more numerous. Some move the "nose piece" 
(/. <?., move the objective without altering the position of the 
tube) ; others move the tube, and still others move the stage. 
These last forms are the worst of all and should never be em- 
ployed. Between the other two and the various methods 
employed for each, there is but little choice when well made. 
The purchaser should, however, always see that the fine ad- 
justment works easily, responds to the slightest turn of the 
adjusting screw, is durable, and can be regulated for very 
short distances. If proper precautions are taken by the maker 
to secure an absolutely straight motion without any lateral de- 
viation cr shake, it is perhaps best to have the whole tube 
move by the fine adjustment, rather than the objective alone. 

The lenses are the important portion of the instrument 
and upon their perfection its value almost entirely depends. 
The eye-piece may either consist cf two or three lenses 
mounted in a short tube (Huygenian oculars), or the lenses 



THE MICROSCOPE. 87 

may be united into one, forming the solid eye-piece. The 
latter is the better and is at the same time more expensive 
form. It is best to have two eye-pieces (those lettered A and 
C by most American manufacturers being the most useful). 
The greatest attention should be paid to the selection of the 
objectives and, unless the purchaser be an experienced per- 
son, some expert friend should be called in to pass judgment 
upon the lenses submitted. The great points to be secured 
are absence of color, flatness of field, and distinctness of 
image. All objectives above a one-fourth should be provided 
with an adjustment for cover glass. The "angle of aperture " 
should be reasonably large, but "high angled" lenses possess 
no value corresponding to their high price except to "Diato- 
maniacs." 

Objectives are rated by English and American manufacturers 
according to their focal length, this being the distance be- 
tween the object and the "optical centre" of the lens when 
an image is formed. Thus a ^ inch does not have a quarter 
of an inch between the objective and the object, but between 
the optical centre (which is nearer the distal portion of the 
lens than is the mathematical centre) and the object. 

For the beginner, the most useful objectives will be an 
inch and a quarter or fifth. As he proceeds in his studies and 
his familiarity with the instrument increases, higher, lower, 
and intermediate powers will be necessary. 

Among the higher powers (£■ inch and upward) it is cus- 
tomary to have the lenses of the kind known as "immersion." 
In these the end of the objective is wetted with a drop of 
water which forms a thin film between the cover of the slide 



88 naturalists' assistant. 

and the lens. It is thus possible to obtain a more brilliant 
view of the object as a larger amount of light can be passed 
through the objective. Besides this there are other immersion 
lenses, etc., in which oil, etc., take the place of the water. 

It may not come amiss to say that the objectives of dif- 
ferent makers, of the same nominal focal length, vary greatly 
in their magnifying power. This results from the fact that 
some manufacturers, in plain English, lie about their lenses 
and sell for a fourth, for instance, a lens which in reality is a 
sixth or an eighth, and thus obtain a reputation for making 
lenses of wonderful power, while were their work tested upon 
its true merits its rank would be much less. One prominent 
American manufacturer notoriously does this and upon just 
this fraud has acquired a great reputation. 

Continental manufacturers have adopted an arbitrary sys- 
tem of numbering their objectives, and, for the convenience 
of many, the tables on the opposite page giving the equiva- 
lent of each in inches are inserted. 

Other prominent European, as well as the English and 
American makers designate their objectives by their focal 
length. The objectives of the Continental manufacturers are 
fully equal for work to those of English or American opticians 
while their prices are greatly lower, and the writer would 
here advise every one to buy the objectives of Hartnack or 
Zeiss, until American manufacturers offer their work at 
reasonable prices. 

The stage of the microscope should be firm and rigid. It 
is frequently convenient to have a stage of glass sliding upon 
brass supports, as thus a great smoothness of motion is ob- 



THE MICROSCOPE. 



8 9 



H 


ARTNACK. 


Zeiss. 


SCHIEK. 


Nachet. 


No. 


Focal length. 


No. Focal length. 


Xo. Focal length. 


Xo. Focal length. 


1 


2 


A 1 


1 2 


2 


2 


1 


A § 


2 8 


1 1 


3 


4 


B 1 


3 1 


2 S 


4 


2 


c i 


4 I 


3 1 


5 


4 


D J 


5 * 


4 I 


6 


i 
5 


E 1 


6 i 


5 i 


7 


1 

6 


F tV ' 


7 i 


6 tV 


8 


* 




8 rY 


7 tV 


9 


tt 




9 ^ 


8 A 


19 1 


A 




10 tV 


9 A 


11 


'. 8 




11 A- 


10 


12 


-I- 

- i 






11 


13 


I 






12 ,V 


14 


i!8 








15 


-i_ 








16 


1 
4 








17 


) 
4 5" 




- 




18 


* 









tained. On the other hand, the glass stage is as frequently in 
the way, and on the whole the student can very well dispense 
with it, as its disadvantages will nearly or quite counterbalance 
its convenience. No rubber should be employed around the 
stage nor in fact anywhere around the microscope. 2 The 



1 Nos. to to 18 are immersion. 

2 Besides its electrical qualities which render it a nuisance, rubber is readily 
affected by turpentine and benzole which are so necessary in microscopic work. 



90 naturalists' assistant. 

under side of the stage should be bevelled around the central 
opening to admit of oblique illumination, and it is often con- 
venient to have a thread cut in the opening itself to admit of 
using objectives as "condensers" in using high powers. The 
stage should also be provided with clips to hold the slide in 
any desired position. Stage forceps are more bother than 
they are worth. 

The illumination of the object is accomplished by a mirror 
and by a "bulls eye" ; the mirror is supported beneath the 
stage and should be so arranged as to be readily placed at 
different distances from the object and also so that the light 
can be thrown at various angles upon the slide. Two mirrors, 
one plain and the other concave, are usually furnished so 
that varying intensities of light may be employed. With high 
powers a lens is frequently employed to add to the illumina- 
tion and is interposed between the mirror and the stage. 
This is called a condenser. Some microscopes have the 
mirror so arranged as to swing above the stage and thus 
illuminate opaque objects ; in others this illumination is ef- 
fected by the "bulls eye" a large lens of common glass 
mounted on a separate standard. 

It is usual to have some method of cutting off undesired 
rays of light coming from the mirror. This is accomplished 
by having apertures of various sizes so arranged that they 
may be brought beneath the object. Various methods are 
adopted to accomplish this but it is difficult to say which is 
best. The microscope as described with its base, its supports, 
and its means of connection of the various parts form what is 
known as the "stand," and this will now be considered, 



THE MICROSCOPE. 9 1 

The stand should be solid and firm, without springiness or 
"give" in its various parts. The base should be heavy so as 
to prevent its easy overthrow. It is frequently convenient to 
have the instrument so arranged that it may be inclined ; but 
if an instrument with short tube and low body be procured 
and fitted with a camera admitting of use in a vertical posi- 
tion, inclination is rarely necessary. 

The accessories which are necessary for the biologist are ex- 
tremely few. First among them comes the camera lucida or 
other means of seeing the object and the point of the pencil 
at the same time. The simplest form consists of a bit of 
thin glass so mounted near the eye-piece of the microscope 
that the eye can see the point of the pencil through it, and at 
the same time the image coming through the eye-piece is re- 
flected by it to the eye. In other forms prisms of various 
shapes replace the thin glass, or a very small metallic mirror 
is employed. A prism properly mounted forms the most satis- 
factory camera. 

Occasionally, in differentiating certain structures in the 
living animal, a polariscope is useful. This consists of two 
prisms of Iceland spar properly prepared and placed, the one 
below the object and between it and the mirror, the other, 
either in connection with the objective or the eye-piece, be- 
tween the object and the eye. When either of these is 
revolved around the axis of the instrument, many structures 
are seen to present different colors which vary as do the rel- 
ative positions of the two prisms. 

Other accessories such as mechanical stages, spot lenses, 



92 NATURALISTS' assistant. 

Lieberkuhns, parabolas, etc., etc., are but rarely used by the 
true student and need not be described here. 

This is a good place to say a word about the "Novelty," 
" Globe," "Craig," and other microscopes which are extensive- 
ly advertised and as extensively recommended by clergymen, 
teachers, and others. These microscopes, furnished for twen- 
ty-five cents, are said to magnify 10,000 times, to show 
animalcules in water and various other wonderful things, but 
they are merely catch-pennies, and the clergy who recommend 
such worthless instruments are entering a field in which they 
are perfect ignoramuses. These cheap microscopes are 
poorly made, give distorted and misleading images, and in a 
word are worse than useless. The Craig is perhaps the worst 
of the lot. 

DIFFERENT FORMS OF MICROSCOPES. 

From the days of Adams, Baker, Trembley, and the older 
investigators, microscopes have been used extensively by 
naturalists, and of course in these years various styles of in- 
struments have originated, but all forms now- manufactured 
may be roughly classified under two heads, the English and 
the Continental patterns. The latter are almost always 
small, of great simplicity, and those of the prominent 
makers like Zeiss, Hartnack, Merz, or Nachet, are invariably 
of good workmanship. These have either a circular or horse- 
shoe base from which arises the support of the working por- 
tions of the instrument. The stage is almost invariably of 



THE MICROSCOPE. 93 

brass, without glass or mechanical attachments. The tube is 
usually supported by an arm or bar and the coarse adjustment 
is effected by means of a sliding tube. The fine adjustment 
on all foreign instruments which the author has seen has in- 
variably been well made and moves the arm and with it the 
tube. The English model is larger and much more compli- 
cated and clumsy. The base is usually of the tripod form 
and the uprights supporting the working parts are much taller 
than is necessary. In the higher priced instruments the 
stage usually bears a plate of glass which in turn supports 
the object. This glass stage, theoretically, is a great conven- 
ience as it affords a very smooth motion and preserves the 
working parts from corrosive liquids ; but in practice it is a 
great nuisance and can well be dispensed with. The stage 
in most of the English models is larger than in the continen- 
tal and in this respect is better. The tube is generally sup- 
ported by a curved arm and the coarse adjustment effected 
by rack and pinion. The fine adjustment indifferently moves 
either the whole tube or just the nose-piece, many manufac- 
turers making both styles. The tube itself is almost always 
unnecessarily long and this defect is increased by a draw 
tube. When English and American students learn that defi- 
nition is better than amplification, and that the shorter an 
instrument is, the better and more useful it is, then, and not 
till then, may we hope for a change for the better in this re- 
spect. It may seem out of place in a work of this character 
to speak of one instrument in higher terms than of another, 
but there are many who wish to purchase microscopes who 






94 naturalists' assistant. 

have not had the necessary experience to select for them- 
selves, hence the following words are written, and must 
not in any way be considered as an advertisement, except 
such as the merit of the various instruments themselves 
demands. 

In the writer's opinion, one of the best stands for all 
ordinary work is the smaller compound microscope manu- 
factured by Carl Zeiss of Jena and designated by him as 
"Vfl." This stand alone costs ninety marks ($22.56) and 
when furnished with four eye-pieces and three objectives, 
A, C, D, F, giving powers of 20-1500 diameters, sells for 
three hundred and twenty marks ($80.00). This instrument 
will answer all the requirements of the naturalist or histologist 
in any special investigation. The ordinary student, however, 
does not need these higher powers, and the same stand with 
three eye-pieces and the objectives "A" and "D" (1 inch 
and £) will answer all ordinary requirements and is sold 
for one hundred and seventy marks (about $42.50). Zeiss's 
American agent is F. J. Emmerich, 138 Fulton St., New 
York, who imports, charging 50 per cent, to cover freights 
and duties. 

The instruments of Hartnack are fully equal in value to 
those of Zeiss and the differences in price are very slight. 
Geo. A. Smith & Co., 149 A Tremont St., Boston, are the 
American agents of Hartnack, or rather, of his successor, 
Prazmowski, and furnish his instruments at very reasonable 
prices. The stand III a with two eye-pieces, and objectives 
4 and 7, giving powers from 50 to 450 diameters, is sold for 



THE MICROSCOPE. 95 

$50.00 ; with the addition of objective No. 9, the price is 
$70.00. No better instrument for actual work can be bought. 

When we come to speak of the comparative merits of the 
instruments manufactured or extensively sold in America, 
it is a rather more delicate matter to decide between them, 
though no corresponding difficulty exists. Beyond all doubt 
the best stand for the student is the American Histological 
stand manufactured by J. Zentmayer, of Philadelphia, and 
with an T 8 7 and a | objective is sold for $50.00. Those who 
prefer a rack and pinion can obtain from this maker essen- 
tially the same instrument with this addition ; the same stand 
for $58.00. Were the stages of these instruments an inch 
lower and an inch larger, as they could readily be made, they 
would be much more convenient. 

R. and J. Beck, of Philadelphia, make an excellent instru- 
ment, the " Economic "(No. 263), which with two objectives 
( 1 in. and I in.) they sell for $40.00. The same with rack and 
pinion and two eye-pieces (No. 264) is advertised for $55.00. 

Bausch and Lomb, of Rochester, make the "Physicians'" 
microscope, of fair workmanship, which with two eye-pieces 
and two objectives, £ and I (No. 550), brings $5o.oo. Their 
instruments, however, would be much better did they avoid 
the use of rubber in their construction. 

The instruments and objectives of Tolles, of Boston, possess 
no advantages at all commensurate with the greatly exorbitant 
prices charged for them. 

In case the student desires higher powers than those enum- 
erated with the foregoing instruments, it will be for his advan- 



96 naturalists' assistant. 

tage to import the lenses of either Hartnack or Zeiss and 
have them fitted by an " adapter" to his microscope. By 
this method, he will obtain good objectives at about half the 
prices charged for similar lenses of no better quality made 
by American opticians. 

Binocular microscopes have of late been extensively ad- 
vertised, but for work possess not the slightest advantage and 
are only manufactured so that the makers may add to the 
prices and to the profits made on their instruments. 



THE USE AND CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE. 

It is a difficult task to give directions for the use of the 
microscope as the varying uses to which it is put require as 
varied a method of handling. All objects for the micro- 
scope should be mounted either temporarily or permanently 
on a glass slide. If it be a moist tissue or an object taken 
from the water, a drop of water should be placed on the 
slide, the cbject placed in it and the whole covered with a 
piece of thin glass. The slide and its object are now ready 
for examination. The microscope should now be made ready 
and the objectives screwed on. It is best to use first the 
lower powers and then the higher if necessary, with either 
reflected or transmitted light according as the object is 
opaque or transparent. There are several advantages con- 
nected with this method of treatment, one being that in this 
way a general idea of the structure is first obtained and the 
various details are studied afterward. It is also much easier 



THE MICROSCOPE. 97 

to find an object under a low power, and, placing it in the cen- 
tre of the field, it is in position when the higher powers are 
employed. 

In focussing the microscope it is better first to run the tube 
down toward the slide to within the focal limits of the objec- 
tive, watching the operation from the side and seeing that 
the cover glass is not touched. Then, with the eye to the 
eye-piece of the microscope, the tube is slowly moved back 
by the coarse adjustment until a good view of the object is 
obtained, and then the fine adjustment is used. 

In using immersion objectives a drop of water is put on 
the front of the objective which is then placed on the mi- 
croscope and run down to the cover glass so that the water 
forms a thin film between the objective and the cover glass. 
A very simple experiment, for which I am indebted to Mr. 
Phin, 3 shows how the immersion aids in the defining power 
of the microscope. "Take four ordinary plate glass slides 
and place a very small drop of water in the centre of three 
of them. Across the ends of these three slides lay a narrow 
strip of stout writing paper, and then place the four slides 
together so that between every two there shall be a drop of 
water and also two slips of paper to keep them apart. If 
you now look through these four slides at any object, the 
spots where the three drops of water have been placed will 
look like a hole it will appear so clean and transparent." 
The water produces exactly the same effect with the immer- 



* Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Microscope, p. 38, by John 
Phin, N.Y., 1875. 

7 



9 8 



naturalists' assistant. 



sion objective. Most objectives use water for an immersing 
medium but some are adapted for oil of cedar, glycerine or 
other liquid. Immersion objectives are valuable for some 
special purposes, but for ordinary work the "dry" lenses are 
much better. 

Most high powers of American objectives have an adjust- 
ment for thickness of cover glass. This is only necessary for 
objectives of very high angle (and the higher the angle, be- 
yond a certain point, the more use- 
A A less the objective). It is better as 

c— - \ l~p we ^ as mucn cheaper to purchase 

Ul ill objectives without this adjustment 

and then use the thinnest cover 
glasses made. These objectives 
without adjustment are always well 
corrected and give good results. 

Having mentioned high angle 
lenses above, it may not be amiss to 
speak of these glasses. This expres- 
sion refers to the angular aperture of 
the objective, or, in other words, the angle which the ex- 
treme rays of light make with each other in entering the 
objective, and the larger the angle the "higher" it is. 

With every increase in the angular aperture, a shorter 
working distance of the lens is necessary, and so with very 
high-angled lenses the inconvenience of working far more 
than counterbalances the gain in definition. Some makers 
absurdly claim to make objectives of 180 angular aperture ! 
People making such claims should be carefully avoided, as 




Fig. 34. 



USE OF THE CAMERA. 99 

their statements are apt to be equally unreliable and false in 
other particulars. As will be seen from the above it is advis- 
able to purchase the lower-angled lenses. The most conven- 
ient glass ever used by the writer was a \ of only 48 angular 
aperture. 

One criticism which the writer would make on the ordinary 
objective is the utterly disproportionate length of brass to 
the optical portion of lenses, making it next to impossible to 
use low power objectives on the smaller stands. Fig. 34 
represents one of these lenses drawn from measurements, 
the shaded part indicating the optical portion and the 
dotted line showing to what extent it might conveniently be 
shortened. We commend it to the attention of opticians. 



USE OF THE CAMERA. 

The camera lucida, or camera, as it is commonly called, 
is one of the most useful microscopic accessories. Two 




Fig. 35. 

forms are offered for sale and are represented in fig. 35 ; the 
one at the left, A, is the most valuable one, but B is the cheaper. 
The ray of light coming through the microscope falls upon an 
inner surface of a glass prism and from thence is reflected 
directly to the eye as in B, or to a second surface and thence 
to the eye as in A. At the same time a ray of light coming 



IOO NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 

from the paper beneath passes through the prism and enters 
the eye in the same direction as the first. These lines of 
light are represented by dotted lines in the figures. It will 
thus be seen that the eye perceives the object under the 
microscope and a paper placed beneath, superimposed upon 
one another. Its method of use is as follows : the micro- 
scope is first focussed upon an object and then the tube is 
brought to a horizontal position, the camera attached to the 
eye-piece and a paper placed on the table beneath the camera. 
Then looking down through the camera, one perceives at the 
same time the paper and the object. A pencil may now be 
made to trace on the paper the outlines of the object, and 
the details afterward filled in free hand. 

In the first figured camera the image by the two reflections 
is first reversed and then reversed again, bringing it the same 
as that seen by direct observation through the tube, giving 
an outline, the details of which are easily filled in. 

The second form having but a single reflection produces a 
reversed image, and hence it is difficult to complete free 
hand. Instead of a prism, the student may easily make his 
own camera of this second form by mounting a piece of thin 
glass in a bit of cork which can be affixed to the tube of the 
microscope. 

A third form, which is rarely seen in xA.merica, but which is 
in the opinion of the writer the best, is the "vertical" camera, 
manufactured by Carl Zeiss. This form may be applied to 
the microscope when in a vertical position, throwing the im- 
age to one side of the stand, and giving the clearest image 
of any, of both object and pencil. It is also remarkably cheap 



USE OF THE CAMERA. IOI 

costing only twenty-one marks ($5.25 ) . Most students at first 
find it difficult to use a camera, but practice soon overcomes 
the difficulty and enables one to adjust the illumination prop- 
erly, which otherwise is the principal cause of poor success. 

The other accessories for the microscope which are of 
value to the biologist are a stage micrometer, one or more 
animalcule cages, glass cells, a compressorium (the one des- 
cribed by Mr. Ryder 4 possesses many advantages and is on 
the whole the best) , and a bull's eye condenser which is neces- 
sary with opaque objects, and when using the higher powers. 
The polariscope is of use in mineralogy and in differentiating 
some animal tissues. Rotary stages, unless accurately cen- 
tred, are useless and then are of value only to the mineral- 
ogists. The stage forceps which accompany most stands are 
models of clumsiness, are wholly worthless, and can well be 
dispensed with. 

In writing the foregoing pages on the microscope and its 
accessories, the writer has had this object in view : to show 
that the simpler an instrument is, other things being equal, 
the better it is, and that none need be deterred from purchas- 
ing a microscope on the grounds that a good instrument 
costs an outrageous amount. Just as soon as American stu- 
dents realize that the simpler their apparatus is the better 
their work will be, just so soon will American science rise 
from its present low level. 

There are three men in America, who never did a single 
stroke of original work in their lives, to whom we are in- 

4 American Naturalist, xiv, p. 691. 1880. 



102 



naturalists' assistant. 



debted for the present low state of the microscopical branches 
of biology. These men without knowing the first requisite 
of biological work have denounced good instruments and 
advocated useless ones, have based their opinions of the 
worth of an instrument on its power of resolving diatoms, and 
the result is that the beginner, influenced by their dogmatic 
assertions and widely-copied opinions, has been led to pur- 
chase an instrument wholly unsuitable for his ends and the 
result has been discouragement and a cessation of microscopic 
work. 




THE LABORATORY. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE LABORATORY. 

Every museum should have connected with it a laboratory 
for practical work. This is especially desirable in connection 
with College Museums, as there is but one way in which Zo- 
ology should be taught : directly from the specimens. There 
are in the United States some 370 institutions which rejoice 
in the name of college or university, but not ten per cent, 
afford their students the slightest facilities for practical work. 
It is sincerely to be hoped that the day is not far distant, 
when this condition of affairs will be changed and specimens 
will replace the text-book instruction. 

The laboratory should be a commodious, well-lighted room, 
with, if possible, a northern exposure, and furnished with 
every convenience for the student. Tables for the students 
should not be varnished, as in that case any accidental spilling 
of alcohol will render them sticky and unpleasant. Instead, 
the tables may be oiled and thus they will not be stained and 
may be readily washed. Either pine or cherry is a good wood 
for tables. A convenient size for tables for single students 
is four feet by three, and two and one-half feet in height. 
Should it be necessary to place more than one student at a 

(105) 



106 naturalists' assistant. 

table, the length should be increased so that each may have 
at least ten square feet of table room. 

The support of the table as well as the floor of the labora- 
tory should be firm, so that all unnecessary vibration, which 
would prove very annoying in microscopic work, may be 
avoided. In the laboratory of Prof. Alex. Agassiz, at New- 
port, each table has a support of its own wholly unconnected 
with the floor of the room. 

Concerning the chairs to be used in the laboratory but 
little can be said. It is best, however, to use either wood or 
leather-bottomed chairs. Of course no varnish should be 
used upon them. 

Larger tables than those mentioned above should be pro- 
vided for the dissection of the larger forms, and these should 
have either slate or metal tops to prevent the fluids, etc., from 
sinking into the wood and causing disagreeable odors by their 
decay. 

m The order should be enforced that every student should 
put his table in good order at the close of the day, should dis- 
pose of all refuse and clean all instruments before leaving 
the laboratory. 

If possible, the laboratory should be provided with water 
and gas, and there should be kept in close connection a well 
selected library of morphological works to which the students 
should have unrestricted access, but should not be allowed 
to remove from the building. A list of indispensable morpho- 
logical works is given at the end of the next chapter. Good 
bibliographies of anatomical and embryological works and 



THE LABORATORY. 



I0 7 



papers will be found in Balfour's Embryology, Owen's An- 
atomy and Gegenbaur's Anatomy. 

Besides the tables and chairs, many of the following in- 
struments, apparatus and reagents will be useful, all coming 
into use in a laboratory where much original investigation is 
carried on, while in an ordinary college course many may be 
omitted. 

INSTRUMENTS. 



Scalpels, large and small. 

"Eye knives." 

Dissecting scissors, straight and 
curved. 

Forceps of various sizes and 
shapes. 

Microscopes, dissecting and com- 
pound. 

Hand-lenses. 

Microtome. 

Beakers. 

Tiles, white and black. 

Test tube. 

Turn tables. 

Glass and earthen vessels of vari- 
ous shapes and sizes. 

Thin glass. 

Glaziers' diamond. 

Dropping and dipping tubes. 

Tubs. 

Aquaria. 

Funnels. 

Paper. 

Pencils 



Tenotomes. 
Cartilage knives. 
Bone saws. 
Bone forceps. 
Dissecting needles. 
Valentine's knife. 
Injecting apparatus. 
Florence flasks. 
Evaporating dishes. 
Glass tubing. 
Watch crystals. 
Hot stage. 
Washing bottles. 
Water bath. 
Glass slides. 
Micrometer scale. 
Writing diamond. 
Thermometers. 
Brackets. 
Sponges. 
Filter paper. 
Dissecting forceps. 
Colors. 



REAGENTS. 



Alcohol, absolute, 95 and 50 per 
cent. 



Caustic potash. 
Aqua ammonia. 



io8 



NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 



Acid acetic. 

" carbolic. 

" chromic. 

" formic. 

•' hydrochloric. 

*' lactic. 

" nitric. 

" osmic. 

" picric. 

" sulphuric. 
Nitrate of silver. 
Extract of logwood. 
Alum. 

Picrocarminate of ammonia. 
Canada balsam. 
Dammar varnish. 
Ring varnish. 
Glycerine jelly. 
Marine glue. 
Chloroform. 
Neutral salt solution. 
Asphalt. 

Brunswick black. 
Bichromate of potash. 
Wickerscheimer's solution. 
Lampblack. 
Caustic soda. 
Benzole. 
Magenta. 



Morphia sulphate. 

Curare. 

Arsenic. 

Corrosive sublimate. 

Glycerine. 

Carmine. 

Eosin. 

Vermilion. 

Hematoxylin. 

Creosote. 

Prussian blue. 

Kleinen berg's hematoxylin. 

Benzole balsam. 

Dammar lac. 

Bell's cement. 

Gelatine. 

Midler's fluid. 

Salt. 

Chloride of gold. 

Paraffine. 

Borax. 

Acid nitrate of mercury. 

Aniline green. 

Iodine. 

Turpentine. 

Indigo. 

Oil of Bergamot. 

Oil of cloves. 



Each student should provide himself with the most useful 
of instruments and reagents in the foregoing list, while those 
which are but rarely used might be furnished by the labo- 
ratory. 

The uses of most of the various instruments, etc., in the 
foregoing list will be described under the various heads which 
follow, while the way in which many of the reagents are made 



THE LABORATORY. IO9 

will be found in the chapter entitled " Recipes, Formulae, and 
Useful Hints." 

Each student should make extended notes of all of his 
work and should accompany it by illustrative drawings. 
From an experience of several years, the writer regards 
"note-books " as the poorest form in which to keep notes, as 
in a short time several books are filled and it becomes an 
interminable job to find any desired item. 

A far better way is to keep the memoranda, drawings, etc., 
on separate sheets which can be arranged in portfolios and 
envelopes after any desired system, thus greatly facilitating 
reference and admitting of future interpolations. 

A word in regard to drawing may not come amiss. Most 
persons have an idea that they cannot draw or learn to draw. 
Nothing possesses less of truth. Any one with a little prac- 
tice can make an intelligible drawing, though but few acquire 
that skill and facility which are necessary for book illustration. 
Almost every student whom the writer has seen enter a bio- 
logical laboratory, has said that he or she could not possibly 
draw and never could learn how. But those same students in 
a very short space of time would produce creditable drawings 
to illustrate their dissections. The great secret of drawing 
is " patience." Drawing takes time, and the trouble with be- 
ginners is that they want to hurry. No instruction is necessary 
to enable a student to reproduce with more or less accuracy 
the features of any preparation or dissection ; practice alone 
will do it. 

Drawings will express far more than pages of description, 
and whenever it is practicable they should be employed. 



• 

IIO NATURALISTS 7 ASSISTANT. 



For scientific work "bristol board" and a "six H" lead 
pencil produce the best results. The shades may be put in with 
India ink and a camel's hair or, better, a sable brush. In 
case it be desired to color a drawing, water colors are best, 
and the moist water colors are the most convenient to use. 

It is frequently desirable to use certain colors for certain 
organs and thus through a series of drawings to indicate the 
parts with similar functions and the following list embraces 
the conventional colors most used. 

White or neutral tint, nerves. 
Red, heart and arteries. 
Blue, veins. 

Brown, the alimentary canal. 
Green, liver. 
Purple, renal organs. 
Yellow, female sexual organs. 
Orange, male sexual organs. 

In a series of drawings with these conventional tints the 
eye readily appreciates the principal features of the anatomy 
without the aid of descriptive text. Other organs than those 
enumerated may be left blank or colored according to the 
fancy of the artist. 

The various photographic processes of reproducing illus- 
trations have lately acquired great prominence and a few 
hints on preparing drawings for the photographer may prove 
of use. 

The " direct transfer " process of the Heliotype Company 
is but poorly fitted for scientific work and the results are very 



THE LABORATORY. Ill 

unsatisfactory. The drawings are made upon bristol board 
with an ink containing alum and these are given to the com- 
pany who produce facsimiles, but they are always muddy and 
blurred. 

For all other photo processes the drawings require that 
each line should be perfectly black and smooth. The draw- 
ings should always be made on bristol board. No wash 
tints or pencil work will take, but all shades have to be ex- 
pressed either by lines or dots. Winsor and Newton's liquid 
India ink produces good results, especially if more cake ink 
is rubbed up with it. 

Of the photo processes the photo-lithographic is the most 
satisfactory but this cannot be used along with press work, 
but requires separate plates. The various processes for pro- 
ducing raised plates (photo-electrotypes) do not vary much 
and the chief distinction between them seems to lie in the 
skill of the operators. The writer has noticed, however, that 
by whatever process, if a poor electrotype resulted, it was 
always attributed to the fault of the one furnishing the draw- 
ing, and not to any fault of the photographer, electrotyper or 
of the process. 




LABORATORY WORK. 



CHAPTER VI. 



LABORATORY WORK. 

The account which follows is from the necessities of the 
case greatly condensed, many points of great importance be- 
ing entirely omitted. This account is intended for the 
beginner only. For more extended directions the student 
is directed to the list of books at the end of this chapter; 
those of Huxley and Martin, Tulk and Henfrey, Burden- 
Sanderson, Strieker and Ranvier giving the best and most 
detailed instructions. Beale's book, like most of his other 
works, is in many respects unreliable. 

DISSECTING. 

All small objects should be dissected under water or a 
mixture of alcohol and water, as these media tend to support 
and float the parts and tissues which otherwise would mat to- 
gether to a greater or less extent, and thus obscure the dis- 
section. Dissecting troughs are used for this purpose. 
These are usually made of tin (fig. 36). These troughs, for 
ordinary work, should be about six by eight inches square, 
and one and a half to two inches in depth. Small tin slips 

(115) 



n6 



naturalists' assistant. 



should be soldered to the sides near the bottom to hold the 
false bottom in position. This false bottom may be of cork, 
wax, or other material which will hold a pin. It is best for 
most purposes to have the bottom black, either by mixing 
lampblack v/ith the melted wax before it is run in, or by 
painting the cork. Other larger and smaller tanks should 
be provided for other work. The object to be dissected 
should be pinned out upon the wax, and just enough water 




B 




Fig. 36. 

to cover the specimen poured in ; a greater quantity interferes 
with facility of work. When the water becomes discolored 
or dirty, it should of course be changed. 

In case of the smaller animals, as grasshoppers, etc., it is 
frequently difficult to pin the subject out, but the following 
plan will answer well. With a hot wire melt a small groove 
in the wax bottom and, while the wax is still in a molten 
condition, place the object in it and, when cold, it will be 
held firmly. Before doing this the specimen should have all 



DISSECTING. 117 

moisture removed from the surface, and, of course, it should 
not be placed above the middle line in the wax. 

At the close of the day's work the specimen should be re- 
moved from the tank and placed in alcohol, while the tank 
itself should be placed wrong side up to drain. 

Below is given a very brief account of the methods of 
studying the gross anatomy of a number of types ; all descrip- 
tions of the organs being intentionally omitted. As the 
student proceeds, he should make drawings as well as notes 
of his work and should endeavor to rely as much on himself 
and as little on text books and instructors as possible. 

Protozoa can only be studied with the microscope. 

Sponges are best studied by cutting sections and examining 
them under the microscope. The various structures and ar- 
rangements of parts can then be made out more or less 
clearly, and the eggs and embryo j in various stages of de- 
velopment can frequently be seen. To study the spicules, 
the specimen should be macerated in water, then picked to 
pieces with needles and examined under the microscope. 

Sea Anemones are dissected from the side, when the 
genitalia, mesenteries and digestive portions are seen. By 
freezing and cutting transverse sections, the relations of the 
mesenteries to the alimentary canal are made out. The 
various cell layers should be studied in stained microscopic 
sections and the lassoo cells should be looked for. 

Starfish should have the upper surface of the arm:, removed, 
taking care that the portion around the madreporic body be 
left uninjured until it becomes necessary to cut it away. Sea 
Urchins may be divided into two halves by a horizontal plane, 



Il8 naturalists' assistant. 

or one side of the skeleton may be broken in. Holothurians 
should be first carefully examined, and the genital opening, 
which is near the mouth, found. This genital opening should 
be placed in the median line above, and then a longitudinal 
incision made from the genital pore to near the anus. This 
will expose the viscera and the parts will show a bilateral 
symmetry. The relation of the longitudinal nerves and 
canals, and the ambulacra should be studied by cutting 
through the integument and one of the longitudinal muscles. 
Clams are dissected by removing one valve. In order 
that uniformity may be obtained the valve removed is the 
left one. To ascertain the right and left, hold the clam with 
the hinge from you, and the end from which the siphons ex- 
tend at your right hand ; the upper valve will then be the left 
one. Insert a dull knife in the gape of the shell and cut the 
strong muscles which hold it closed. These will be found in 
the clam near the hinge line, at the two ends of the shell. 
In the mussel (Mytilus) and the oyster but one such muscle 
will be found. The heart (near the hinge line) , the aliment- 
ary canal with its tortuous course and the nervous system 
may be then studied. The gills under the microscope show 
a fine example of ciliary action. 

Snails should be extracted from the shell, by breaking it or 
otherwise, and opened from the dorsal surface. 

The larger worms may also be opened from above, but 
many of the smaller ones, especially among the lower forms, 
must be studied in sections. 

Lobsters are opened by removing a portion of the carapax 
exposing the circulatory apparatus, etc. The nervous system 



DISSECTING. 119 

lies on the floor of the body cavity and in a portion of its 
course is covered by bony arches. These must be broken 
down. The homologies of the legs and mouth parts should 
also be investigated. The gills will be found under the sides 
of the carapax. The relations and motions of the teeth found 
in the stomach will prove an interesting subject for study. 
Insects are dissected in much the same way as lobsters, but 
from their smaller size require more delicate manipulation. 

Frogs are one of the best of vertebrates for study. In inves- 
tigating the visceral anatomy they should be killed by pithing; 
a needle is forced into the spinal canal at the base of the skull 
and forced down the canal and also into the brain. The frog 
is now opened in the median ventral line and the parts care- 
fully dissected out. The heart will continue beating for a 
considerable time after the animal has been killed. The 
brain is studied by opening the skull from the top. The 
muscles are easily dissected, their origin and insertion readily 
seen and the results produced by each one, readily under- 
stood. Fishes and many mammals are generally opened from 
the side. The left side is the one usually chosen, the head 
being directed toward the left hand of the operator. 

The amount of time which can be advantageously spent 
on a single form or even on a single specimen is very great. 
In studying the anatomy of any form there should be no 
haste. Not a single cut should be made until the student 
realizes just why and what results will follow. It is far better 
to know the structure of one form well than to have a super- 
ficial and very vague idea of a dozen or more forms, 



NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 



INJECTING. 

The circulatory system is best studied in injected speci- 
mens. These are prepared as follows : an artery or other 
vessel is exposed and opened and in the opening the nozzle 
of the injecting apparatus is inserted. Usually an injecting 
syringe is use. This is a metal instrument, closely resembling 
the ordinary "surgeon's syringe," provided with 
nozzles of various sizes. Sometimes instead of a 
syringe an apparatus is used in which the weight 
of water or mercury is employed to force in the 
injection. This has the advantage of affording 
a steadier pressure then can be obtained in the 
ordinary manner. Fig. 37 represents this ap- 
paratus. Three bottles are required, each of 
which is corked with a stopper through which 
two glass tubes pass. One of each pair of tubes 
goes to the bottom of the bottle 
while the other merely passes 
through the corks. One bottle 
(I?) is filled with water and is 
suspended by a string (a) pas- 
sing over a pulley by which its 
height may be regulated. This bottle is connected with the 
second (d) by a rubber pipe attached to the long glass tube 
in each. This in turn is connected with the third by a second 
rubber pipe attached to the short glass tube and from this 
bottle runs a rubber pipe bearing the glass injecting nozzle. 
The methods of use are as follows : the tube connecting 




Fig. 37. 



INJECTING. 121 

the first two bottles is filled and acts as a siphon and thus 
conveys the water to the second bottle creating there a pres- 
sure which in turn is communicated to the bottle, e, which 
contains the injecting material and which is thus forced out 
into the subject. By elevating or depressing the bottle b any 
desired pressure may be obtained. 

With the injecting apparatus a colored fluid is forced into 
the vessels, rendering it very easy to trace them in dissecting. 
In some cases a saturated solution of prussian blue is suffi- 
cient for this purpose but it is better to employ albumen or 
gelatine as a basis. 

Common gelatine is melted over a slow fire with the aid 
of water, in the proportions necessary to make a stiff jelly 
when cold. These proportions are usually given on the out- 
side of the package. When melted, the coloring matter is 
stirred in. This may be an aqueous solution of carmine or 
prussian blue. Vermilion and yellow ochre are sometimes 
used but from their weight they are not readily held in 
suspension. 

In injecting with gelatine the object must be first warmed 
and then kept in warm water while the operation is being 
performed, otherwise the jelly will set before the fine vessels 
are filled. To ensure success the specimen injected should 
be fresh, not alcoholic. When injected, the vessels should be 
tied and the specimen put away to cool so that the jelly may 
set. It is well to place it immediately in alcohol as that 
reagent facilitates the process by the extraction of water. 

The place for the introduction of the injecting fluid varies 
with the form operated upon, as well as the system to be 



122 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 

filled. In Vertebrates the arterial system may be injected 
from the aorta. In Crustacea a small hole should be bored 
through the carapax immediately over the heart and into this 
the nozzle of the syringe should be inserted, taking care that 
the tip enters, but does not pass through the heart. Injecting 
mollusks is rather more difficult, the injection should be 
forced into the heart, or into the vessel at the base of the 
gills ; while starfishes are most easily injected by cutting off an 
arm and inserting the nozzle into the tube found on the lower 
surface. Insects and worms are only injected with very 
delicate manipulation. The method just described injects 
only the arterial system. To fill the veins is not so easy. It 
is best accomplished by forcing the injection into some distal 
portion and allowing it to find its way back to the heart. 
Thus the web of a frog's foot, the claw of a lobster and the 
foot of a mollusk are the best places for those forms. Great 
care must be exercised in performing an injection that the 
pressure employed is not sufficient to rupture the vessels. 
The more recently life is extinct the stronger the vessels are. 
Besides injecting colored material to aid in the demonstra- 
tion of the circulating system, various preservations are some- 
times injected into the arteries, alimentary canal and body 
cavity to aid in keeping the specimens. Herr Wickerschei- 
mer recommends his fluid for this purpose. 

SECTION CUTTING. 

It is necessary in making microscopic examinations of 
structures and tissues to have them thin enough to be trans- 
parent, or very translucent, otherwise they cannot be well 



SECTION CUTTING. 1 23 

illuminated. There are two ways of accomplishing this : by 
teasing and by cutting sections. 

The easier method is by teasing. To do this a portion of 
the object is placed on a slide with the addition of a few 
drops of water, alcohol, glycerine or neutral salt solution ac- 
cording to the nature of the specimens and the objects or 
portions which it is desired to see. Then with two dissecting 
needles the tissue is teased or pulled into shreds, and then 
examined under the microscope, or mounted permanently 
after any desired method. 

Teasing produces good results in fibrous tissue where it is 
desired to isolate the fibres, as in nerves, muscles, connective 
tissue, etc. At other times it does not work so well. 

Section cutting is, however, the most universal and in the 
majority of cases the best method of preparing substances for 
examination, but at the same time it requires more time to 
accomplish. The various processes can conveniently be taken 
up in the following order : hardening and decalcifying, em- 
bedding, cutting and freeing from the embedding material. 

Fresh tissues are generally either too soft, or in the case of 
bones, teeth, scales, and shell too hard to admit of being read- • 
ily cut and hence certain steps must be taken to prepare them 
for the razor. 

Suppose we have an object, an embryo tadpole for instance, 
of which we desire to obtain sections. This in its natural con- 
dition would be far too soft and must be hardened. This 
hardening may be accomplished in various ways. The most 
common method is first to place it for a few hours in weak 
alcohol (about 40 per cent.) ; it is then transferred to stronger 



124 NATURALISTS' assistant. 

(say 60 per cent.) spirit and after a short time is placed in 
strong alcohol (90 to 95 per cent.). The object after a day 
or two in this will be found to be much harder, and to pos- 
sess a consistence fitting it for the use of the razor. The 
object of the successive uses of spirit of increasing strength 
is to prevent that contraction and distortion of the object 
which would occur were it placed at once in the strongest 
alcohol. 

Miiller's fluid is also extensively used for hardening objects, 
as are also chromic acid and Kleinenberg's picric acid. The 
modus operandi is essentially the same with either. The 
specimen is placed in a large quantity of the solution (Miil- 
ler's fluid as directed on p. 138, or chromic acid i and \ per 
cent.) and after a day or two is transferred to alcohol. These 
solutions must not be too strong nor must the specimens be 
kept too long in them, else they will become so brittle as to 
crumble under the section knife, rendering it impossible to ob- 
tain thin sections. A little experience will enable one to esti- 
mate the proper time for various tissues. 

Osmic acid (one to one-tenth per cent, solution) is also 
very useful for hardening and at the same time it stains the 
section more or less darkly from a gray to a black. As noted 
on another page, it is selective in its staining, affecting nerves 
and fatty tissues more strongly than other tissues. The object 
is placed in the solution a varying number of hours according 
to the tissue, and then is washed thoroughly with distilled water 
and transferred to alcohol. 

Other methods advocated by some students consist of the 
use of bichromate of potash, and among the older workers 



SECTION CUTTING. I 25 

corrosive sublimate, but the foregoing answer all practical 
purposes. 

When there are bone or lime salts in the tissues, chromic acid 
is the most useful reagent. It serves at the same time to 
harden the soft portions and to decalcify and thus soften the 
hard. Tlie object must be placed in a large quantity of the 
fluid of a greater strength (one to two per cent.) and the 
acid should be frequently changed until all lime salts have 
disappeared. Of course, with this increase in strength of acid 
and the length of time of immersion, one runs a risk of the 
other portion becoming brittle, but this cannot well be 
avoided. In some cases it is necessary to use dilute hydro- 
chloric acid in place of the chromic. This should rarely be 
used of greater strength than one per cent. After the sub- 
stance is thoroughly decalcified it is transferred to alcohol. 

Frequently specimens contain such a large amount of pig- 
ment matter as to render the thinnest section opaque and to 
utterly obscure all cell limits. In such cases it is necessary 
to immerse the tissues in 25 per cent, nitric acid, and to watch 
closely until the color disappears. This usually takes some 
hours, and the sections cut from such material are not very 
satisfactory but are the best that can be obtained. 

The process of embedding comes next in order. The sub- 
stances used are many, the most common being pure par- 
affine, a mixture of paraffme and oil or tallow, wax and tallow, 
transparent soap, gum arabic, and glycerine jelly. With most 
substances paraffme, without the admixture of anything, gives 
the best results, though many advise the addition of a fourth 
to a half of paraffme oil, or lard, or tallow, to render it softer. 



126 naturalists' assistant. 

It will be seen that in the above hardening processes the 
specimen was left in strong alcohol. This fits it for the next 
step, which is to soak it for a while (say half an hour) in spirits 
of turpentine. While the specimen is soaking the paraffine 
should be melted in a water bath (or in its absence a sand 
bath may suffice), over a spirit lamp or gas jet. A small por- 
tion of the paraffine should always be allowed to remain un- 
melted as thus the remainder will not acquire too high a 
temperature. When melted a portion of the paraffine is 
poured into a paper tray covering the bottom to the depth of 
an inch, and just allowed to " set." The object is then re- 
moved from the turpentine, the superfluous spirit being re- 
moved by blotting paper, and next placed on the surface of 
the paraffine in the tray and completely covered by more of 
the melted paraffine. When cold it is ready for cutting. The 
object when placed in the tray should be in such a position 
that the sections may be cut in the desired plane, and note 
should be taken of its position, as after the paraffine becomes 
hard this is difficult to ascertain. 

In case the specimen to be embedded contains cavities, 
pains should be taken to fill these with paraffine. The usual 
method of doing this is to transfer the object directly from 
the turpentine to a mixture of half turpentine and half par- 
affine which is kept just melted. After a few minutes' immer- 
sion in this mixture it is transferred to the tray and the process 
completed as before. 

A convenient tray may be made from common writing paper 
by taking a piece of proper proportions to the object to be 
embedded, longer than wide and folded on the lines shown in 






SECTION CUTTING. 



127 



the accompanying figure. This is then made into a tray, the 
diagonals coming on the outside of the ends and then the 
portions which project on each of the shorter sides are folded 
down, thus holding the whole securely. 

In case a section cutter with a hollow tube (e. g., the Ster- 
ling microtome) be employed, it is better to embed directly in 
the tube, the process being essentially the same. 

When soap is used for an embedding medium, the object is 
soaked in water instead of turpentine and the soap is melted 
with the addition of a slight amount of the same fluid. Other- 
wise the process is the same as before. 




Fig. 38. 

The foregoing methods both require heat and with many 
tissues as nerves, this produces an injurious effect. To avoid 
this gum arabic is employed. The specimen is washed in 
water and then placed in a thick mucilage of gum arabic and 
water, and the whole immersed in strong alcohol. The alco- 
hol extracts the water and thus coagulates and hardens the 
whole. 

Glycerine jelly requires heat but otherwise is used the same 
as gum arabic. Mr. Moseley found it very useful in studying 
the structure of Millepora and allied corals. 



128 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 

Elder pith is used by a few as an embedding material for 
some animal tissucn, but I have had no experience with it. 
The object, surrounded with pith, is placed in the tube of the 
microtome and then the pith is wetted which causes it to swell 
and hold the whole firmly. 

Of late years freezing has been a favorite method with those 
objects which are injured by heat. In this process the speci- 
men is immersed in a mucilage of gum arable in the tube of 
the microtome and frozen by an ether spray, or by having the 
tube surrounded by a tank in which is kept a freezing mixture 
of salt and ice. 

Having embedded our object the next thing in order is to 
cut the sections. The first thing necessary is a knife. The 
most usual form is an ordinary razor, one side of which is 
ground flat. It is well to have the other side concave as thus 
a thinner edge is procured and the razor acts less like a wedge. 
At other times a knife made especially for the purpose is used. 
The knife, or razor, should be kept very sharp, and should 
have a perfect edge, free from any nicks, even if too small to 
be seen by the naked eye, as these will catch and ruin the 
section. 

With practice good sections can be readily cut free hand, 
and it is always desirable that the student should be able to 
produce good results in this manner, whether he possess a 
microtome or not. In cutting sections free hand the bit of 
parafhne is held in the left hand and the razor either drawn 
towards or pushed from the operator with the right. Some 
work one way and some the other ; the razor should not be 
pushed straight through but should have a drawing stroke, 



SECTION CUTTING. 1 29 

When about to begin cutting the sections, the paraffine 
mass should be removed from the tray and trimmed to a con- 
venient size, leaving more material behind the object than in 
front of it. Slices should then be carefully taken from above 
the object until it is reached and then even greater care should 
be taken. In case a mass of tissue is being cut it should be 
pared down until a good surface is reached, the slices taken 
off being rejected. When an embryo is being cut every slice, 
whether perfect or not, should be preserved. Always, when 
cutting sections from paraffine embedding^, the up- 
per surface of the razor should be flooded with 
strong alcohol ; when soap is used water replaces 
the alcohol and with glycerine jelly glycerine is 
useful. The object of this is to float the object up 
and prevent its sticking to the razor and thus be- 
coming torn. It is convenient to have a shallow 
tank before the worker filled with alcohol or water, 
into which the razor with the section is dipped, the 
section being floated off and the razor wetted for FlG - 39 
the next section at the same time. When a sufficient number 
of sections have been cut from a paraffine embedding, the 
embedded material may be sealed up by placing a drop or 
two of melted paraffine on the cut end and the whole then 
labelled and put aside for future sections. A specimen thus 
embedded will keep for months without injury and may be 
cut from at any time. 

After cutting, the sections are to be freed from their em- 
bedding material. In the case of paraffine this is accom- 
plished by immersion in turpentine. When soap, or gum, or 
9 



130 naturalists' assistant. 

jelly is used, water will accomplish this. After being freed, 
they may be kept in alcohol or mounted as desired. In 
handling sections the greatest care should be exercised. A 
very convenient instrument is a section lifter, consisting of 
a thin sheet of metal attached at an angle to a handle. 
This is passed under a section floating in the liquid which 
is gently lifted and floated off in the desired place. 

In case it be desired to keep the sections in consecutive 
order, each as cut must be transferred to its proper recepta- 
cle and properly labelled. 

To aid in cutting sections mechanical appliances have 
been invented. These are known as microtomes or section 
cutters. Of these many forms have been in use, the best 
and most common being those described below. 

The simplest form is the Sterling microtome (so called 
from its inventor) . This consists of a tube in which moves 
a plug, regulated by a screw with a large graduated head. 
The other end of the tube bears a large brass or glass plate 
over the surface of which the razor passes. 

The method of using is simple : the embedded material oc- 
cupies the tube resting on the plug, a slight turn of the 
screw moves the whole forward, a slice is taken off with the 
razor, and the process is repeated. 

By knowing the number of threads to the inch of the 
screw, and the fraction of a turn which it made in cutting 
each section, the thickness is an easy matter to ascertain. 
This section cutter (as in fact all others) produces sections 
with parallel surfaces, a rather difficult thing to obtain by cut- 
ting free hand. 



SECTION CUTTING. 



131 



Some in using this microtome prefer to hold it in the hand, 
others fasten it to the table and thus have both hands free 
for work. 







Fig. 40. 

The next form to be described is the "Sledge Microtome" 
which was introduced to the American public by Dr. C. S. 
Minot. It is probably the best of these instruments. 



132 naturalists' assistant. 

It consists of a heavy oblong base about four by ten 
inches and about a quarter of an inch in thickness. Arising 
from this base is an upright plate ; on either side of these are 
" ways, " those on one side being horizontal and on the other 
slightly inclined. On the horizontal ones a carrier travels 
holding the knife, while on the other a second carrier is 
borne, moved by a screw. This second carrier holds the 
embedded specimen. Its method of operation is as fol- 
lows : the embedded material is placed in the carrier which 
is moved forward and upward until it is high enough to cut. 
Then the knife is slowly but steadily drawn across the end of 
the embedded object. The knife is then returned, the screw 
turned the fraction of a revolution, and then another sec- 
tion cut. Of course the knife is to be constantly wet with 
alcohol. A valuable addition to this instrument may be made 
by having the object carrier mounted on a universal joint, thus 
permitting any desired inclination. Some sections of this 
model are made of wood and are good for nothing. 

Dr. Seiler's microtome is well shown in the figure and 
needs no further description. It possesses this advantage 
over all others, that the knife has a drawing motion. 

Freezing microtomes are sometimes employed. These 
are generally of the Sterling pattern and have an attachment 
by which a considerable degree of cold may be obtained 
either by ice and salt or by ether spray. 



BOOKS FOR THE LABORATORY. 1 33 

Balfour, F. M. Treatise on Comparative Embryology. 2 vols. 
(1 pub.), 8vo. London, 1880. 

Beale, L. S. How to work with the Microscope. 5th edit. 
8vo. London, 1880. 

Brooks, W. K. Handbook of Invertebrate Zool. Boston, 1882. 

Burden, Sanderson. Handbook for the Physiological Labora- 
tory. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1877. 

Foster and Balfour. Elements of Embryology. 12mo. Lon- 
don, 1874. 

Foster, M. Text Book of Physiology. 12mo. London, 1877. 

Clark, H. J. Mind in Nature. 8vo. N. Y., 1865. 

Gegenbaur, C. Elements of Comparative Anatomy. 8vo. 
London, 1878. 

Huxley, T. H. Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated An- 
imals. 12mo. London, 1871. 

Huxley, T H. Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated 
Animals. 12mo. N. Y., 1878. 

Huxley & Martin. Elementary Biology. 12mo. N. Y., 1876. 

Milne-Edwards, H. Lecons sur la Physiologie et l'Anatomie 
comparee de l'homme et des Animaux. 13 vols., 8vo. Paris, 
1857-79. 

Owen, Richard. The Anatomy of Vertebrates. 3 vols., 8vo. 
London, 1868. 

Ranvier. Traite d'Histologie. Svo. Paris, 1875. 5 parts pub. 

Rolliston, G. Forms of Animal Life 8vo Oxford, 1870. 

Schafer, E. A. A Course of Practical Histology. 8vo. 
London, 1877. 

Siebold & Stannius. Comparative Anatomy (the Inverte- 
brata translated by Burnett [Boston, 1851], the rest in German 
and French editions.) 

Strieker S. Handbook of Human and Comparative Histol- 
ogy. 8vo. N. Y., 1872. 

Tulk & Henfrey. Anatomical Manipulation. 12mo. Lond 1844. 



CHAPTER VII. 



RECIPES, FORMULAE AND USEFUL HINTS. 

Ammonia carmine. 

Pulverized carmine 15 grains. 

Aqua ammonia (strong) 40 drops. 
Absolute alcohol 1 oz. 

Glycerine 2 oz. 

Distilled water 2 oz. 

Put the carmine in a test tube. Pour in the ammonia, boil a few 
seconds and set the whole aside for a day to allow the superfluous am- 
monia to evaporate. Add the mixed glycerine and water, then the al- 
cohol and filter. 
Borax carmine. 

Pulverized carmine 15 grains. 

Saturated aqueous solution of borax 15 A. dr. 
Mix and add absolute alcohol 15 fl. dr. 

Filter and collect the crystals when dry. Dissolve nine grains of the 
crystals in one ounce of distilled water. 

Ticrocarminate of ammonia (Picrocarmine). 

Make a strong solution of carmine in ammonia and water, and a 
saturated solution of picric acid in water. Mix the acid solution with 
the carmine until the ammonia is just neutralized. Then filter. 
Hematoxylin. 

Rub together in a mortar one part extract of logwood and three parts 
pulverized alum (by measure) and afterward add enough water to dis- 

(135) 



136 naturalists' assistant. 

solve only a portion of the resulting powder. Let the solution stand 
several days until it becomes saturated and assumes a dark violet color. 
If still too red add more alum. Then filter and dilute with one-fourth 
of seventy-five per cent, alcohol. 
Hematoxylin (No. 2). 

Ground Campeachy wood 1 oz. 

Pulverized alum 2 oz. 

Mix and triturate in a mortar for twenty minutes; then add two 
ounces of hot distilled water, and let the whole stand a couple of days. 
Filter and add to each ounce a quarter of an ounce of ordinary alco- 
hol. After standing twenty-four hours more, filter again to remove the 
precipitated alum. This will keep two months in a well stoppered vial. 
Hcematoxylin. (No. 3). 

Hematoxylin crystals 35 parts. 

Absolute alcohol 1000 parts. 

Water (distilled) 3000 parts. 

Alum 10 parts. 

Dissolve the hematoxylin in the alcohol, the alum in the water and 
mix. The mixture is purple at first, but gradually turns blue. It can 
however be used at once after filtering. 
Hcematoxylin (Kleinenberg's Method). 

Make a saturated solution of crystallized chloride of calcium in 70 
per cent, alcohol, and add alum until no more will be dissolved. This 
is the first solution; the second is a saturated solution of alum in 70 per 
cent, alcohol. Mix these two solutions in the proportions one of the 
first to eight of the second. Then to the mixture add a few drops of a 
saturated solution of crystallized hematoxylin in absolute alcohol. 
Frey's Fuschiue solution. 

Crystallized fuschine I centigramme. 

Absolute alcohol 15-20 drops. 

Distilled water 15 cu. centimetres. 

This, though a useful staining medium, possesses the disadvantage that 
it cannot be used where the tissue is to be mounted in balsam. 



RECIPES, FORMUL/E AND USEFUL HINTS. 137 

Eosin and fuschine (aniline colors) are used in a two per cent, aque- 
ous solution but have a tendency to stain all parts equally. The method 
of operation is similar to that with carmine. 

Nitrate of silver is used for differentiating the walls of cells. The ob- 
ject is placed for a few moments in a solution made of nitrate of silver, 
one part, distilled water, 500 parts, then washed in distilled water and 
exposed to the direct rays of the sun. It is then mounted as may be 
desired and shows the cell walls black, and in many cases this is the 
only way in which they can be seen at all. 

Osmic acid, in one-tenth per cent, solution, is useful fo studying 
nerves and fatty tissues as it stains them black. Great care should be 
taken in using osmic acid as it is one of the most poisonous substances 
known, and its vapor badly affects the eyes and nasal passages. 

Chloride of gold is also of value in studying the histology of the 
nerves. Sections are first placed from five to seven minutes in a one 
half per cent, solution of the chloride, then soaked in distilled water 
several hours, next placed in water acidulated with lactic acid to reduce 
the chloride, and after the proper color (a dark purple) is obtained, the 
specimens are washed with distilled water and soaked in alcohol and 
mounted as may be desired. 

MoleschotVs acetic acid and alcohol (strong). 

Strong acetic acid (sp. gr. 1.070) 1 part. 

Strong alcohol I part. 

Distilled water 2 parts. 

This hardens many organs, makes connective tissue transparent and 
renders albumen distinct. 

MoleschotVs acetic acid (weak). 

Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1.070) I part. 

Alcohol 25 parts. 

Distilled water 50 parts. 

This is better for delicate tissues than the strong. Besides rendering 
connective tissue transparent, acetic acid renders the nuclei of cells 
more plainly visible. When a one per cent, solution of acetic acid is 



138 naturalists' assistant. 

mixed with about one-third its bulk of ordinary hematoxylin solution, 
the connective tissue corpuscles are stained a beautiful purple. 
Muller's Fluid. 

Sulphate of soda 1 part. 

Bichromate of potash 2 parts. 

Water 1 00 parts. 

Midler's fluid for hardening the retina. 

Bichromate of potash 2^ grammes. 

Sulphate of soda I gramme. 

Distilled water 100 grammes. 

Besides its hardening properties, this is useful for preserving glands, 

mucous membranes and ciliated cells.- 

Bichroynate of potash for macerating specimens is used in a £ per 
cent, aqueous solution. 
Iodized serum. 

Take the amniotic fluid of a cow or other mammal, add a crystal or 
two of iodine and allow it to stand a few days, with frequent agitation. 
Then filter. Any other serous fluid may be used. Iodized serum seems 
to macerate tissues and at the same time to preserve the original form of 
the histological elements. The iodine tends to prevent putrefaction 
and at the same time renders the elements of the tissue firmer. 

Artificial iodized serum. 

Take one ounce of the white of an egg; pick out the chalazese and 
mix with nine ounces of water and fifty grains of common salt. Then 
add several crystals of iodine. 

Neutral salt solution is a £ per cent, solution of common salt in dis- 
tilled water. It is useful in studying living tissues as the cells do not 
exhibit such marked changes as when pure water is used. 

Glycerine jelly. 

Cooper's gelatine I oz. 

Best glycerine 6 oz. 

Carbolic acid 20 drops. 



RECIPES, FORMULA AND USEFUL HINTS. 1 39 

Soak the gelatine over night in water; in the morning add the 
swelled gelatine to the glycerine and carbolic acid heated to about 200 
Fahr. in a water bath. Continue the heating several hours until the 
water is all expelled. Then filter and bottle. The filtering is difficult 
and can only be accomplished by the aid of heat. 

Glycerine jelly. 

The original method of making this is as follows : Take any quan- 
tity of gelatine and let it soak several hours in cold water. Pour off 
the superfluous water and melt the soaked gelatine by the aid of heat. 
To each ounce of the fluid gelatine add one drachm of alcohol and 
mix well. Then add a fluid drachm of the white of an egg and mix 
well while the gelatine is cool but still fluid. Now boil until the albu- 
men coagulates and the gelatine is quite clear. Filter through fine 
flannel, and to each fluid ounce of the clarified gelatine add six fluid 
drachms of pure glycerine (Price's is the best) and mix well. 

Glycerine and gum. 

Dissolve two parts by weight of gum arabic in two parts of cold water 
and add one part of glycerine. Mix well but use no heat, and strain. 
Keep in a tightly stoppered vial. This medium has the advantage in 
mounting, that no heat is required, while it becomes solid in a short 
time after mounting. 

Dr. Lang's method of studying nervous histology of the Turbel- 
laria. 

50 parts 1 per cent, solution of Picrocarminate of ammonia. 

50 parts 2 per cent, aqueous solution of eosin. 

Objects are hardened in alcohol and placed in this solution one-half 
to four days. The picric acid is then extracted by 70 per cent, alcohol, 
and the specimens washed with 90 per cent, and absolute alcohol as long 
as any eosin is dissolved. In embedding in paraffine a copious use of 
creasote is recommended. This produces in sections of Dendroccela, 
carmine red nuclei and nucleoli, glands, adipose tissue, while all other 
parts are eosin red. 

Dr. Treub, in studying the nuclei of plants, first killed the cells by 



140 naturalists' assistant. 

absolute alcohol; then placed the tissues in I per. cent solution of picro- 
carminate from four to twelve hours. They were next shaken in dis- 
tilled water to remove the picric acid and placed in glycerine and water 
which is gradually replaced by pure glycerine containing I per cent, 
of formic acid. By this proces the nuclei are stained bright red, the 
rest of the cell being uncolored. 

Goadby's solution for preserving specimens. 
No. 1. Bay salt 4 oz. 

Alum 2 oz. 

Corrosive sublimate 2 grs. 
Rain water I qt. 

No. 2. Salt. h lb. 

White arsenic 20 grs. 

Corrosive sublimate 2 grs. 
Boiling rain-water I qt. 
Arsenical soap. 



BECCEURS. 




Camphor 


5 oz. 


White arsenic 


2 lbs. 


White soap. 


2 lbs. 


Salts of tartar 


12 OZ. 


Powdered chalk 


4 oz. 



The soap is melted with a little water over the fire, and the chalk and 
tartar added. It is then removed from the fire and the arsenic, and 
lastly the camphor mixed with a little alcohol is stirred in. The paste 
is then packed in jars and labelled. 



rsenical soap. 




swainson's. 




White arsenic 


I oz. 


White soap 


I oz. 


Carbonate of potash 


1 dr. 


Distilled water 


6 dr. 


Camphor 


2 dr. 



This composition is formed in cakes like ordinary soap. 



RECIPES, FORMUL/E AND USEFUL HINTS. 1 4 



Arsenical soap. 




SIMON'S. 




Soap 


i|lb. 


Alum 


8 oz. 


Carbonate of potash 


4 oz. 


Common salt 


4 oz. 


Powdered chalk 


8oz. 


Powdered camphor 


2 oz. 


Water 


ipt. 


Melted by heat, the camphor 


being added Is 


Arsenical soap. 




LAURENT'S. 




Arsenite of potash 


2 dr. 


Alum 


2 dr. 


Powdered camphor 


2 dr. 


White soap 


h oz. 


Alcohol 


6 oz. 



The first two placed in a bottle and the alcohol poured over them. 
When dissolved, the other ingredients are added. This composition 
requires to be tightly corked. 



Bullock's arsenical powder. 




White arsenic 


lib. 


Burnt alum 


lib. 


Tanner's bark 


2 lbs 


Camphor 


£oz. 


Musk 


h oz. 



The first three to be firmly powdered and passed through a sieve, the 
others then to be added and the whole thoroughly mixed. 

Corrosive sublimate solution. 

Dissolve one ounce of corrosive sublimate in one quart of alcohol in 
a glass vessel. This solution is to be applied with a string-wound brush 
as the presence of metal will produce a discoloration. 



142 NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 



' Sugar" for moths. 




Ale 


h pint. 


Honey 


i lb. 


Sugar 


|lb. 


Rum 


I oz. 


Oil of bitter almond 


5 drops 



The ale is heated and the sugar and honey added. When cold the 
rum and oil of almond, having been previously mixed are poured in 
and the whole thoroughly stirred. 

"Sugar" for moths. No. 2. 

A thick sugar made, of brown sugar with a small quantity of rum. 

Dr. Leconte's poison for insects. 

Saturated alcoholic solution of arsenic 8 fl. oz. 
Strychnine 1 2 grs. 

Crystallized carbolic acid I dr. 

Heavy benzine and alcohol enough to make one quart. 

Heavy benzine should be used (about 10-12 oz.), as lighter will not 
mix with alcohol. The benzine should be tested for grease, by moistening 
paper with it. If all greasy appearance does not disappear on drying 
it should be rejected. This poison is to be applied to the insects in the 
cabinet by an atomizer. 

A good mucilage. 

Take equal parts of gum arabic and gum tragacanth, swell in water 
and then dissolve by means of heat, then add a few drops of carbolic 
acid and a few of glycerine. The carbolic acid prevents fermentation 
or mould, the glycerine keeps it from cracking or scaling off when 
dry. 

Thick flour paste added to common glue adheres well to glass as also 
does the mucilage made of gum arabic and gum tragacanth. 

' ' Electrical Cement. " 

Melt together ten oz. of resin, two oz. of beeswax, two oz. of red 
ochre, and add a teaspoonful of plaster of Paris. This is used hot for ce- 
menting brass or wood to glass. 



RECIPES, FORMULA AND USEFUL HINTS. 143 

Peron's Luting. 

Common resin 
Red ochre 
Yellow wax 
Oil of turpentine 

First melt the wax, then add the resin, next stir in the ochre and 
lastly the turpentine. According as the ochre or other ingredients pre- 
dominate, the luting will be brittle or elastic. Great care should be 
taken that the mixture does not take fire and the vessel used should be 
capable of containing at least three times the quantity made at one 
time. 

Grafting wax. 

Melt together eight oz. resin, three of beeswax and one of lard. Run 
in sticks. It improves with age. 

Black ink. 

A black ink is frequently desirable and is almost impossible to obtain 
in the stores. A good ink may be made by boiling eight oz. of pow- 
dered nut galls and one oz. extract of logwood in three quarts of water 
for an hour. Strain and add four oz. of copperas (sulphate of iron), 
three oz. of gum arabic and one of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) ; 
let it stand until dissolved and strain again. A few cloves will keep 
it from moulding. 

Old alcohol which has been discolored by specimens can be cleaned 
by filtering through animal charcoal, but nothing will completely remove 
disagreeable odors though a redistillation will sometimes help it. 
After filtering, the spirit should be brought to a proper strength (to be 
ascertained by the hydrometer) by adding new alcohol. 

To blacken brass. 

It is occasionally desirable to blacken portions of instruments as stages 
of microscopes, etc. This may be done by cleaning the brass of all 
grease, then covering with a solution of nitrate of copper which on the 
application of heat turns the surface to a jet black. If desirable, it may 
then be lacquered by applying shellac varnish and heating slightly. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



USEFUL WORKS OF REFERENCE. 



The following list includes only such works as will aid the 
student in arranging and identifying his collections, all mor- 
phological papers being purposely omitted. The more useful 
of these are printed in full face type. While the list is far 
from perfect it is hoped that it will prove of use to the 
zoologist. 

The majority of the titles have been translated either in 
full or in abstract, but the language in which the article is 
written is indicated by the abbreviation following the title. 
For a more complete list of papers, students should refer to 
the various special bibliographies quoted. The catalogues 
published by Friedlander und Sohn of Berlin will also prove 
useful. 

All Museums should possess Dictionaries of French, 

German, Latin, Swedish, Danish, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese 

(147) 



148 naturalists' assistant. 

and Norse languages ; as many important works are published 
in those tongues. 

Other necessary works are : 

Agassiz L., Nomenclator Zoologicus, 4to, Solduri, 1846-48. 

Marschall, A. D., Nomenclator Zoologicus, 8vo, Wien, 1873 (a 
continuation of Agassiz's work). 

A large Atlas of the world. 

Lippincott's complete pronouncing Gazetteer, 2 vols., 8vo, 
Philadelphia, 1880. 

Scudder, S. H., Catalogues of Scientific" Serials of all coun- 
tries, 8vo, Cambridge, 1879. 

Royal Society's list of Scientific Papers, 8 vols, 4to, London, 
1868. 




CHAPTER VIII. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

General Zoology. 

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(149) 



150 NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 

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Pallas, P. S. Miscellanea Zoologica, 4to. 1766. (Lat.) 

Peters, Carus und Gerstaecker. Handbuch der Zo- 
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work. Ger.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 151 

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52 



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Gervais, P. New or rare animals of Castlenau's expedition 
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[It has been found more convenient to catalogue these two 
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Agassiz, L. North American Testudinata. Contri- 
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Cope, E. P. On the Families of the Raniform Anura. Jour. 
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T 56 naturalists' assistant. 

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Cantor, T. Catalogue of Malayan Fishes. 8vo. Calcutta, 
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17° naturalists' assistant. 

Gill, Theodore. Catalogue of Fishes of the East Coast of 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. I 7 1 

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1 7 2 NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 

Kaup, J. J Catalogues of the Apodal and Lophobranchiate 
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Knight, T. F. Descriptive Catalogue of fishes of Nova Sco- 
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Kroyer, H. Fishes in Gaimard's Travels in Scandinavia. 
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McClellan, J. Indian Cypriniclse. 4to. Calcutta, 1839. 

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Miiller and Troschel. Horae Ichthyologige. 3 pts., fol. Ber- 
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Playfair and Gunther. Fishes of Zanzibar. 4to. London, 
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Poey, F. Conspectus of Cuban Fish. (Mem. Hist. Nat. 
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Poey, F. Synopsis of Cuban Fish. (Repertorio fisico-natural 
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Poey, F. Review of Cuban Trisotropes. (Ann. N. Y. Ly- 
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Poey, F. Monograph of the Cuban Sparini. (Ann. N. Y. 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. 173 

Putnam, F. W. List of Fishes sent by the Museum to other 
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Richardson. Fishes in Fauna Boreali Americana. 4to. Lon- 
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Schinz, H. R. Natural History and Illustrations of Fish. 
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Schomburgh, R. H. Natural History of the Fishes of Guiana. 
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Siebold, Temminck and Schlegel. Fishes of the Fauna Jap- 
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Storer, D. H. A History of the Fishes of Massa- 
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174 



NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 



Yarrell, W. History of British Fishes. 2 vols, and Suppl. 
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Invertebrata (General). 



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Lamarck, J. B. Second edition by Deshayes and Milne Ed- 
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Latreille, P. A. Natural History of Crustacea and Insects. 
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Latreille, P. A. Genera of Crustacea and Insects. 4 vols. 
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Leidy, Joseph. Marine Invertebrate Fauna of Rhode Island 
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Leuckart, R. Human Parasites. 2 vols. 8vo. Leipzig, 
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Lucas, H. Natural History of Crustacea, Arachnida and My- 
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Lucas, H. Articulata in Expl. Scientifique de l'Algerie. 4 
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Packard, A. S., jr. List of Animals dredged in Southern Lab- 
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Insecta (General). 

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Beauvois, de, A. M. and F. J. P. Insects from Africa and 
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Blanchard. Same translated by Duncan. London, 1868. 

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176 naturalists' assistant. 

Burmeister, H. Handbook of Entomology. 5 parts. 

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Burmeister, H. Same (Manual of Entomology), translated 
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Fabricius, J. C. Species Insectorum. 2 vols. 8vo. Ham- 
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Fitch, A. Reports on the Noxious and Beneficial In- 
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Geer, de, C. Memoirs on the History of Insects. 7 vols. 
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Germar et Ahrens. European Insect Fauna. 6 vols. 12mo. 
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Glover, T. Notes from my Journal. 4to. Washington (pri- 
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Guerin et Percheron. Genera of Insects. 8vo. Paris, 1835- 
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Hagen, H. A. Biblotheca Entomologica. (Bibliog- 
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Haldemann. Insects in Stausbury's Salt Lake Report. 8vo. 
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Harris, M. The Aurelian. New Edition by Westwood. 4to. 
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Harris, T. W. Insects injurious to Vegetation, bvo 
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Harris, T. W. New edition by Flint. Boston, 1862. 

Harris, T. W. Entomological Correspondence, edited by 
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Kirby, W. Insects of the Fauna boreali Americana. 4to. 
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Verrill, A. E. Leeches in Report Wheeler's Surv.,v. 1875. 

Villott, A. Monograph of Gordiadae. Arch. Zool. Exp. et 
gen., iii. 1874. (Fr.) 

Webster, H. E. Annelida Chaetopoda of Virginia 
Coast. (Trans. Albany Inst., ix. 1879). 

Williams, T. Report on British Annelida. 8vo, 10 pis. 
(London), 1852. 

ECHINODERMATA AND C(ELKNTERATA. 

Agassiz, A. Illustrated Catalogue of North Amer- 
ican Acalephse. (111. Cat. Mus. Comp. Zool.) 4to. Cambridge, 

1865. 

Agassiz, A. List of Echinoderms sent by the Museum of 
Comp. Zoology to various Institutions. (Bulletin M. C. Z. i, 
1863.) 






BIBLIOGRAPHY. 2IQ 

Agassiz, A. Revision of the Echini. (Memoirs M. C. 

Z.) 4pts.SU pis. 1872-74. 

Agassiz, A. and E. C. Seaside studies in Natural History. 
8vo. Boston, 1871. 

Agassiz, Lyman and Pourtales. Contributions to the fauna 
of the Gulf Stream at great depths. (B. M. C. Z i, I860.) 

Agassiz and Pourtales. Echini, Crinoids and Corals 
of the Hassler Expedition. (111. Cat. M. C. Z. viii, 1874.) 

Agassiz and Pourtales. Monograph of Corals of 
Florida. (111. Cat. M. C. Z., 1871.) 

Agassiz, L. Monographic d'Echinodermes. 4 vols. 4to. 63 
fol.pls. Neuchatel, 1838-42. (Fr.) 

Agassiz, L. Contributions to Natural History of the 
Acalephse Of the U. S. (Mem. Am. Acad., 1849.) 

Agassiz, L. Contributions to the Natural History of 
the U. S. 4 vols. 4to. many plates, Boston, 1857-62. 

Allman, G. J. Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or 
Tubularian Hydioids. 2 vols. fol. (Ray Soc.) 23 pis. London, 
1871-72. 

Van Beneden, P. J. Polyps of Belgium. 4to. 19 pis. Brus- 
sels, 1866. 

Clark, H. E. Prodrome of Lucernaria. (Jour. Bost. Socy. 
1863 ) 

Clarke, S. F. New Hydroids. (Am. Jour. Sci. iii, 1876.) 

Clarke, S. F. Alaskan Hydroids. (Pror. Pliila. Acad. 1877.) 

Dana, J. D. Zoophytes U. S. Exploring Expedition. 
4to, with folio atlas, 61 pis. New Haven, 18! 6-59. 

Dana, J. D. Structure and Classification of Zoophytes. 
4t«. Phila., 1846. 

Dana, J. D. Coral and Coral Islands. 8vo. N. Y., 1872. 

Dnnielssen and Koren. Results of the Norse Northern Expe- 
dition. 3 pts. pub. 8vo. 1877-79. 

Duben et Koren. Review of Scandinavian Echinodermata. 
8vo. Stockholm, 1845. 



2 20 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 

Duchassaing et Michelotti. Corals of the Antilles. 2 pts. 
4to. 21 pis. Turin, 1860-G4. (Fr.) 

Esper, E. J. Die Pflanzenthiere. (Zoophyta.) 3 pts. and suppl. 
4to. 443 pis. Nurenburg, 1791-1830. (Ger.) 

Forbes, E. History of British Starfishes and other Echino- 
dermata. 8vo. London, 1841. 

Forbes, E. Monograph of British Naked-eyed Medusae. (Ray 
Soc.) fol. 13 pis. London, 1846. 

Gegenbaur, C. Contributions to a better knowledge of the 
Siphonophora. 4to. 10 pis. Leipzig, 1854-60. 

Gosse, P. H. Actinologia Brittanica. (British Sea Anemo- 
nes and Corals.) 8vo. London, 1860. 

Gray, J. E. Catalogues of Echinida, Starfishes, Sea Pens 
and Stony Corals in British Museum. Zool. 8vo. 1855-70. 

Gray, J. E. Synopsis of the Star Fish in British Museum. 
4to. 16 pis. London, 1867. 

Greene, J. R. Manual of the Ccelenterata. 8vo. London, 
1869. 

Haeckel, E. Contributions to Nat. Hist, of Hydromedusae. 
8vo. Leipzig, 1865. 

Haeckel, E. System der Medusen. 4to, many plates. 
1879. (Ger.) 

Hincks, T. Natural History of British Hydroid Zoo- 
phytes. 2 vols. 8vo. 67pls. London, 1868. 

Hulton, F. W. Catalogue New Zealand Echinoderrnata. 8vo. 
Wellington, 1872. 

Huxley, T. H. Oceanic Hydrozoa. (Ray Soc.) 4to. 12 
pis. London, 1859. 

Johnston, G. History of British Zoophytes. 8vo. 
44 pis. Edinburg, 1838; 2 edit. 74 pis. Loudon, 1847. 

Kolliker, A. Siphonophora of Messina, fol. 12 pi. Leipzig, 
1853. (Ger.) 

Kolliker. A. Descriptions, Anatomical and Systematic, of the 
Alcionana. (Pt. i, 4to, 24 pis. Frankfort, 1872. (Ger.) 



BIBLIOGRAPAY. 221 

Lamouroux, J. G. History of the flexible Coralline polypid- 
oms. 8vo, 19 pis. Caen, 181G. (Fr.) English Edition, London, 
1824 

Leidy, J. Marine Invertebrate Fauna of Rhode Island and New 
Jersey. (Jour. Phil. Acad., iii, 1855). 

Lockington. List of Echinoidea in Collection of California 
Academy. (Proc. Cal. Acad., vii, 1875.) 

Liitken, C. Echinoderms of Central America. 8vo. Copen- 
hagen, 1858. 

Liitken, C. Additamenta ad historiam Ophiuridarum. 4to, 
7 pis. Copenhagen, 1859-69. (Lat.) 

Lyman, T. Ophiuridse and Astrophytidse. (111. Cat. 
Mus. Comp. Zool., No. 1, 1864. Suppl. No. 6, 1871.) 

Lyman, T. Ophiuridae and Astrophytidae, new and old. (Bul- 
letin M. C. Z., iii, 1874). 

Lyman, T. Ophiuridae and Astrophytidae of theHassler Expe- 
dition. Memoirs M. C. Z, 1874. 

Macready, J. Proc. Elliot Socy., i. 1856-60. 

Mertens, H. Observations and Researches on Beroid Acale- 
phae. 4to, 13 pis. St. Petersburg, 1833. (Ger.) 

Milne-Edwards, H. Researches on the Polyps. 8vo, 28 pis. 
Paris, 1838. (Fr.) 

Milne-Edwards, H. Natural History of the Polyps proper. 
Svo, 31 pis. Paris, 1857-60. (Fr.) 

Mtiller und Troschel. System der Asteriden. 4to, 12 pis. 
Brunswick, 1842. (Ger.) 

Pervier, E. Revision of Stellierdes. (Arch. Zool. Exp. et 
Gen., iv, 1875.) (Fr.) 

Pourtales, L. F. de. Deep Sea Corals. (Illust. Catalogue M. 
C. Z., iv, 1871). 

Pourtales, L. F. de. Corals and Antipathea of the Caribbean 
Sea. (Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool., vi, 1880.) 

Rathbun, R. Echinoid Fauna of Brazil. (Am. Jour. Sci., 
1878.) 



222 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT. 

Rathbun, R. List of Brazilian Echinoderms. (Trans. Conn. 
Acad., v, 1878). 

Eichiardi, S. Monograph of rennatulidae. 8vo, 14 pis. Bo- 
logna, 1869. (Ital.) 

Sars, M. Memoir on living Crinoids. 4to, 6 pis. Christiana, 
1868. (Fr.) 

Sars, M. Review of Norse Echinodermata. 8vo. Christiana, 
1861. 

Savigny, J. C Iconograpbie des Echinodermes, Polypes et 
Zoophytes del'Egypt, fol. 28 pis. Paris, 1810. 

Selenka, E. Anatomy and Revision of the Holothu- 
rians. (Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool. xvii.) 1867. 4 pis. (Ger.) 

Semper, C. Scientific Results of Travels in Philip- 
pene Archipelago. Holothurians. 4to, 87 pis. Leipzig, 
1867-8. (The most valuable work on the subject ever pub- 
lished.) 

Try well, G. Manunl of British Sea Anemones. 8vo, 7 pis. 
London, 1856. 

Verrill, A. E. Revision of Polypes, east coast of Amer- 
ica. (Memoirs Bost. Socy. i, 1863.) 

Verrill, A. E. List of Polypes and Corals sent by Museum 
Comp. Zool. (Bulletin M. C. Z.) i, 1864. 

Verrill, A. E. Synopsis of Polypes and Corals of No. Pacific 
Exploring Expedition. (Bulletin Essex Inst, iv-vi, 1866-69.) 

Verrill, A. E. Notes on Radiata. (Trans. Conn. Acad, i, 
1868-71.) 

Verrill, A. E. New and imperfectly known Echinoderms and 
Corals. (Proc. Bost. Socy. xii. 1869.) 

Vogt, C. Siphonophora and Tunicata of Nice. 2 vols., 4to, 
27 pis. Geneva, 1854. (Fr.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 223 

Sponges and Protozoa. 

Bowerbank, J. Monograph of British Spongiadae. 
3 vols. 8vo, 129 pis. (Ray Soc.) London, 1864-74. 

Bowerbank. J. Monograph of Siliceo-fibrous sponges. 8vo. 
London, 1869-76. 

Butschli, O. Contributions to a knowledge of the Flagel- 
lata. (Zeit. Wiss. Zool. xxviii, 1878.) (Ger.) 

Carpenter, W. B. Researches on Foraminifera. 4to 
22 pis. Loudon, 1856-61. 

Carpenter, Parker and Jones. Introduction to study 
of Foraminifera. fol. 22 pis. (Ray Soe.) London, 1802. 

Claparede et Lachmann. Studies of Infusoria and 
Rhizopoda. 2 vols. 4to, 37 pis. Geneva, 1858-01 (Fr.) 

D'Orbigny, A. Foraminifera in de la Sagra's Cuba. Paris, 
1839. (Fr.) 

Duchassaing et Michelotti. Sponges of the Caribbean 
and Antilles. 4to. 25 pis. Harlem, 1804. (Fr.) 

Dujardin, F. Natural History of the Infusoria. 
(Suites a Buflbn). 8vo. Paris, 1841. (Fr.) 

Ehrenberg, C. G. Organization, Classification and Geograph- 
ical Distribution of the Infusoria. 4to. 24 pis. Berlin, 1830-36. 
(Ger.) 

Ehrenberg, C. G. Die Infusionthierchen. fol. 04 pis. 
Leipzig, 1838. (Ger.) 

Greene, J R. Manual of the Protozoa. 8vo. London, 1871. 

Haeckel, E. Monograph of the Radiolaria. Folio with 
atlas, 35 pis. Berlin, 1802. (Ger.) 

Haeckel, E. Monograph of Monera. 8vo. Jena, 1808. (Ger.) 

Haeckel, E. Monograph of Calcispongiae. 3 vols. 4to. 
00 pis. Berlin, 1872. (Ger.) 

Hertwig R. Studies on Rhizopoda. (Jena Zeitsch., 1877. 
Ger.) 



224 



NATURALISTS ASSISTANT. 



Hyatt, A. Revision of North American Poriferse. 
(Mem. Bost. Soc. ii, 1874.) 

Johnston, G. History of British Sponges. 8vo. Edinburg, 
1842. 

Leidy, J. Flora and Fauna in living Animals. (Smithsonian 
Contributions v, 1853.) 

Leidy, J. Fresh Water Rhizopoda of North Amer- 
ica. (Hayden's Survey.) 4to, 48 pis. 1880. 

Parker and Jones. Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 10 pts., 
8vo. (London), 1859-72. 

Parker and Jones. On some Foraminifera from the North At- 
lantic. 4to, 8 pis. (London, 18G5.) 

Pritchard, A. History of the Infusoria. 8vo. London, 1842. 

2 edit. 8vo, 13 pis. London, 1849. 

Quennerstedt, A. Contributions to the Swedish Infusoria 
fauna. 4to (Lund), 1860-70. (Swcd.) 
Stein, Fr. Die Organismus der Infusionsthiere. 

3 vols., 4to, many pis. Leipzig, 1859-77. (Ger.) 
Williamson. Monograph Recent Foraminifera. (Ray Socy.) 

fol. Loudon, 1857. 




INDEX. 



Aberration .... 

Acetic acid 

Adjustment of microscope 

Adjustment for cover-glass 

Alcohol 

Alcoholic specimens 

Ammonia car m in 3 

Angle of aperture 

Arsenical powder 

Argentic nitrate 

Arsenical soap . 

Artificial serum 

Auric chloride . 

Batrachia . 

Bausch and Lomb micro 

scope 
Beam trawl 
Beck's microscopes . 
Beating for insects . 
Becceur's arsenical soap 
Bibliography 
Bichromate of potash 
Birdlime . 
Birds . 
Blackening brass 
Blackening wax 
Black ink 
Blow gun 
Borax carmine . 
Boring glass 
Bottom collecting 
Bottles 

Brackets for shelves 
Brass, to blacken 



PAGK 




PAGE 


82 


Breeding cage 


31 


137 


Breeding larvae . 


31 


85 


Bullock's arsenical pow- 




98 


der .... 


141 


41 


Bulls eye 


90 


3 


Butterfly nets 


19 


135 


Butterfly triangles 


25 


98 






141 


Cabinets for bottles . 


74 


137 


Camera lucida . 


91, 9!) 


140 


Card catalogues 


51 


138 


Care of microscope . 


96 


37 


Caring for collections 


40 




Carmine 


135 


12 


Cases .... 
Cases for microscopic 


63, <;s 


95 


slides 


75 


37 


Cases for small bottles 


73 


95 


Catalogues . 


50 


20 


Cement . , . 


142 


140 


Chairs .... 


ior> 


149 


Chloride of gold 


137 


38 


Chromic acid 


125 


2, 3 


Clams, dissecting 


118 


6 


Coarse adjustment of mi 




143 


croscope . 


85 


57 


Coddington lens 


82 


143 


Collecting and preserving 




2 


works on . 


1 


135 


Collecting batrachia . 


12 


57 


Collecting equipment 


31 


35 


Collecting insects 


18 


55 


Collecting net 


IS 


70 


Collecting reptiles 


12 


1, 3 


Collecting umbrella . 

(225) 


20 



226 


INDEX. 






PAGE 




PAGE 


Collecting vertebrate 


3 . 2 


Gasteropoda 


118 


College museums 


G4 


Gelatine injections 


121 


Colors; conventional 


59 


Generic names . 


46 


Compound microscop 


e . 84 


Glass, to bore 


57 


Compressorium 


101 


Glass stages 


89 


Condenser . 


90 


Glycerine and gum . 


139 


Conventional colors 


. 59, 110 


Glycerine jelly . 


121, 138 


Corrosive sublimate 


141 


Goadby's solutions ■ 


140 


Craig microscope 


92 


Gold chloride 


137 


Crustacea 


118 


Grafting wax 


54, 143 


Cyanide bottle 


20 


Gum .... 


48 


Cyanide of potassium 


i . - 20 


Gum arabic 


127 






Gumming insects 


23 


Destroying pigment 


125 






Diaphragm . 


90 


Hematoxylin 


135 


Dissecting . 


115 


Hardening tissues 


123 


Dissecting insects, et< 


;. . 116 


Hartnack microscopes 


94 


Dissecting microscop 


es . 84 


Hartnack objectives . 


89 


Dissecting tank . 


115 


Heliotype . 


110 


Dissections preserved 


L . 56 


High angle lenses 


98 


Dissolving parafflne 


129 


"Homoeopathic " collec- 




Drawing 


109 


tions . ' . 


73 


Drawtube . 


85 


Homoeopathic vials . 


56 


Dredging 


35 


Horizontal cases 


71 






Huygenian oculars . 


86 


Eggs . 
Egg drill 
Eggs exhibiting . 
Elder pith . 
Electrical cement 


11 
11 

52 
128 
142 


Ichneumon parasites . 
Illustrations 
Imbedding . 
Imbedding tray . 


33 

109 

. 125, 127 

12(i 






Immersion lenses 


87,97 


Eosin . 


137 






Equipment, collecting 
Exhibition cases . 


J . 31 
69 


India ink 
Inflating larvae . 


46 

27 


Exhibiting birds' eggs 


, . 52 


Inflating oven 
Injecting 


28 
120 






Injecting media 


121 


Fine adjustment of m 


icroscope 85 


Ink .... 


46, 143 


Fishes . 


13 


Ink for labels 


46 


Focal length of objec 


tives 87 


Insects 


18 


Focussing the micros 


cope 97 


Insect cases 


72 


Formulae 


135 


Insect forceps 


24 


Freezing microtome 


129 


Insect labels 


49 


Freezing tissues . 


129 


Insect localities . 


22 


Frey's fuschine . 


136 


Insect net . 


23 


Frogs . 


119 


Insect pins . 


23 


Fruit jars 


. 41, 57 


Insect poison 


142 


Fuschine . , 


136 


Instruments for laboratorj 


r 107 



INDEX. 



227 



PAGE 

Iodized serum . 138 

Jars for storage . . 57 

Jellyfish . 41 



Killing insects ... 20 

Killing spiders ... 30 

Killing marine forms . 41 

Kleinenberg'3 haematoxylin 136 

Labels .... 45 
Label holders ... 48 
Labels, large ... 59 
Labelling birds ... 9 
Labelling bottles . . 49 
Labelling fcssils and mi- 
nerals .... 50 
Labelling insects . . 49 
Laboratories . . .67, 105 
Laboratory necessaries . 107 
Laboratory tables . . 105 
Laboratory work . . 115 
Lamellibranchs . . 118 
Land shells ... 42 
Large labels ... 59 
Larvae, breeding . . SI 
Larva?, inflating . . 27 
Laurent's arsenical soap . 141 
Leconte's insect poison . 142 
Lenses .... 81 
Lens holder ... 83 
Lilting sections . . 129 
Lobsters .... 118 
Locks ..-.. 69 
Logwood (see Haematoxylin) 135 

Macerating skeletons . 16 

Macerating skulls . . 17 

Mammals .... 4 

Marine collecting . . 34 

-Medusae .... 41 

Mending insects . . 26 

Microscope .... 81 

Microscopic slide cases . 75 
Microtomes . . .127, 130 

Moistenring insects . . 25 

Moleschott's acetic acid . 137 

Mounting fishes ... 14 



Mounting shells . 
Mounting skeletons 
Mounting specimens 
Mounting spiders 
Mucilage 
Mailers fluid 
Museum plans . 
Myriapoda . 

Nachet objectives 
Natural skeletons 
Nests and eggs . 
Neutral salt solution 
Nitric acid 
Nitrate of silver 
Note books 
Novelty microscope 

Objectives 
Oculars 
Old alcohol 

Oniscidae 

Osmic acid . 

Ox gall for mending 

Packing butterflies 
Packing insects 
Packing jars 
Painting tablets 
Paper trays 
Paraffin e 
Peron's luting 
Perosmic acid 
Photo-illustrations 
Picrocarmine 
Pigment 
Pill bugs . 
Pinning forceps 
Pinning insects 
Plan for museum 
Poison bottle 
Poisoning insects 
Polariscope 
Polyzoa 

Potassic bichromate 
Protozoa 
Printed labels 
Pumping 



pa&f 
53 
17 
45 
30 
48, 142 
124, 138 
64 
33 

S9 
17 
11 
138 
125 
137 
109 



84 

84 

143 

34 

124. 137 

nseets 26 

25 

26 

57 

53 

126 

125 

143 

137 

111 

135 

125 

34 

24 

23 

64 



91 

42 

138 

117 

46 
58 



228 



INDEX. 





PAGE 




PAGE 


Quinine bottles 


58 


Stands for birds 


10 






Starfish 


117 


Reagents 


107 


Sterling microtome . 


130 


Recipes 


135 


Storage jars 


57 


Relaxing insects 


25 


Storing specimens 


57 


Reptiles 


12 


Stretching paper 


72 


Revolving stages 


101 


Substitutes for cork 


72 


Rooms 


63 


Sugar for moths 


141 






Sunken net 


39 


Safety cord 


37 


Surface collecting 


39 


Schieck objectives 


89 


Swainson's soap 


140 


Scoop nets 


19 






Sea anemones 


117 


Tables 


105 


Sea urchins 


117 


Table cases 


71 


Section cutters . 


127, 130 


Tablets 


53 


Section cutting 


122 


Tangle 


38 


Section knife 


128 


Teasing tissues 


123 


Section lifter 


129 


Tightening cases 


70 


Seiler's microtome 


132 


Tolles' instruments . 


95 


Serum 


138 


Transparent soap 


127 


Setting insects . 


24 


Transporting insects 


26 


Shelf brackets . 


70 


Trawl .... 


37 


Shot . . 


2 


Triplets 


82 


Silver nitrate 


137 


Turtles 


13 


Simon's arsenical soap 


141 . 


Typical collections . 


58 


Skeletons 


16 






Skimming . 
Skimming net 
Skinning birds . 


39 

40 

9 


Use of microscope 
Useful hints 


9D 
135 


Skinning mammals . 

Skulls 

Sledge microtome 

Snails . . . . 


4 

17 

131 

118 


Vertebrates 
Vertical camera 
Vials .... 


. 2, 119 
100 
55 


Soap for imbedding 
Softening tissues 
Solid eye-pieces 
Sow bugs . 
Specific names . 
Spiders . 


127 
125 

87 
34 
46 
33 


Washing the collections 
Wing trawl 
Wooden tablets 
Work tables 
Works on collecting 


37 

38 

53 

105 

1 


Spiders, mounting 


30 






Spreading insects 


24 


Zeiss microscopes 


94 


Spreading board 


24 


Zeiss objectives 


89 


Sponges . 


117 


Zentmayer microscopes 


95 



NATURALISTS' INSTRUMENTS. 



AVe keep constantly on hand an assortment of Instruments used by Natural- 
ists, such as 



SCALPELS, BIRD-STUFFING FORCEPS, SCISS0R3 (curved and straight', 

EGG BLOWERS, EGG DRILLS, INSECT PINS, 

INSECT PIN FORCEPS, &c. 




Scalpels, Ebony Handle .? .75 

Bird-Stuffing Forceps, 75, 1.25, 1.75, 2.00, 2.25, 2.75 

According to length. 

Scissors, Straight 75, 1.00 

Scissors, Curved 1.25, 1.37, 1.50 

Egg Drills 25 to 1.50 

Syringes 4.00 to 25.00 

Egg Blowers, Nickeled 50 

NATURALISTS' CASES. 

Prof. Marks' Case Instruments $6.00 

Prof. Wilder's Case Instruments 10.00 



CODMAN & SHUBTLEFF, 

Surgical and Dental Instruments, 

13 and 15 Tremont Street, 

BOSTON, MASS. 



HARTNACK MICROSCOPES. 




THE HARTNACK MICROSCOPES AND OBJECTIVES 

Acknowledged by the most eminent experts as the best in- 
struments in the world for 

STOLOGICAL, BOTANICAL, AND OTHER 
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 

Recommended by the Professors of Harvard Univer- 
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Arrangements have 
been made by which 
these Microscopes, w T ith 
their Objectives, can 
now be placed upon the 
American market in com- 
petition with other manu- 
factures. As 

Sole Agents 

Ave guarantee them to be 
as represented. 



Prices from $20 to $300. 



Stand No. VII. 



Selling Agents*for Chance's Slides and Cover Glasses, 
and Marhoe's Mounting Materials. 

IMPORTERS XXT> MANUFACTURERS OP 

Microscopists' Supplies, Educational Supplies, 
Chemical and Philosophical Apparatus. 



Correspondence solicited. Catalogues on application. 



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No. 7 Park Street, Boston. 



C J. MAYNARD & CO., 

No. 306 Washington Street, 
Boston, Mass. 



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NATURALISTS' SUPPLIES 

Birds' Eggs, Nests, Skins, &c, &c. 



We make a Spee : alty of NATURALISTS' and 
TAXIDERMISTS' SUPPLIES, such as Instru- 
ments for Egg-Blowing, Stringing, Mounting, 
etc. Also, 

ARTIFICIAL. EYES, LEAVES, 
GRASSES, MOSSES, 

and in fact all Supplies needed by the Collector 
and Taxidermist. 



Send for Catalogue, addressing- as above. 



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optician, 



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IMPORTANT BOOKS FOR THE NATURALIST. 



Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology, 

For Laboratories and Seaside Work. By Prof. W. K. Brooks, Ph. 
I)., Director Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins 
University. Price, £3.00 

This work is published in one large 8vo volume of 400 pages. Illustrated 

with 200 entirely new cuts, from drawings by the author, or made under his 

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Handbook of Entomology. 

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Commission, State Entomologist of Mo., etc., etc. In press. Cloth. 8vo. 

Price, $3.60 

Inter national Scientists 9 Directory . 

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Jan., 1883. 12mo. Price, paper, §2.00; cloth, $2.50 

Sea Mosses. 

By Rev. A.B.Hervey. New edition. 20 Colored Plates. 12mo. Price, §2.00 

Check List of Coleoptera, 

Check List of Coleoptera of America, North of Mexico. By G. R. Crotch, 
M. A. 8vo. New edition, with supplement. Price, 81.25. 

MinoVs Birds of New England. 

Land Birds and Game Birds of New England, with descriptions of Birds, 
their Nests and Eggs, their Habits and Mates. By H. D. Minot, Illus- 
trated by outline cuts. 456 pages. 8vo. Cloth. Price, §3.00 

Ferns of Xorth America, 

Text by Prof. Daniel C. Eaton, of Vale College. Illustrations by Messrs. 
J. H. Emerton and Charles E. Faxon. Complete in two volumes. Large 
4to. Cloth, gilt top. Price §30.00 

life on the Sea- Shore ; 

Or, Axtmals of Oir Coasts and Bays. With illustrations and descrip- 
tions by James H. Emerton. 12mo. Cloth. Price, §1.50 

Priniative Industry ; 

Or, iLLrsruA tioxs of the Handiwork in Stone. Bone and Clay, of 
the Nativk Races of the Northern Atlantic Sea-Board. By 
Charles C. Abbott, M. D. 560 pages. 8vo. 429 cuts. Price, §3.00 

Hoiv to Mount Birds and Animals; 

Or, the Taxidermist's Guide. By C. J. Maynard. 12mo. Cloth. 

Illustrated. Price, §1.50 

This is an entirely new work, just issued, and should be in the hands of 

all who are interested in our birds and animals. With its aid the tyro can 

soon prepare skins in as good shape as the most experienced taxidermist. 



Any book mentioned sent by mail on receipt of price. Books imported from 
all European centres at lowest rates. 

S. E. CASSINO^ PUBLISHER, 

32 Hawley St., Boston, Mass. 



HANDBOOK 

OF 

INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY, 

FOR LABORATORIES AND SEASIDE STUDY. 
B"5T W. Kl. BROOKS, 

Associate Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, and 

Director of the Marine Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins 

University : formerly Assistant in the Boston Society 

of Natural History. 

The book contains directions for studying the general anatomy, the micro- 
scopic structure, and the development of selected types of animal life; and it 
also describes the method of collecting and preserving the forms which are de- 
scribed. The following are some of the subjects treated : 

The structure of Vorticellae, 

The reproduction of Vorticellae, 
The structure of a Sponge, 

The structure and growth of a Campanularian Hydroid, 

The structure and development of a Hydro- Medusa, 
The general anatomy of a Starfish, 

The microscopic anatomy of a Starfish. 

The general anatomy of a Sea Urchin, 
The embryology and metamorphosis of the Sea Urchin and Starfish, 
The general anatomy of the Earthworm, 

The microscopic structure of the Earthworm, 
The anatomy of the Leech, 

The anatomy of a Crab. 

The metamorphosis of a Crab, 

The structure and development of Cyclops, 
The anatomy of a Grasshopper, 

The general anatomy of Unio, 

The microscopic anatomy of Unio, 

The embryology and metamorphosis of Unio, 

The anatomy and embryology of the Squid, 

Illustrated by nearly two hundred cuts from the author's draw- 
ings, or from drawings made from nature under his direction. 

S. E. CASSINO, Publisher, 

BOSTON, MASS. 



NEW WORK 

ON 

SEA MOSSES. 

^"^^Kr^- 

\y E shall issue in a few days an elegantly illustrated "Manual of American Sei 
Mosses," prepared by Rev. A. B. Hervey. It is just such a work as has Ion., 
been needed and much called for: a handy, convenient book for sea-side u»e. 
Nothing of the kind has been published in this country; Harvey's great work, com- 
pleted 25 years ago, in three ponderous quartos, being too expensive and too cum- 
bersome for general and popular use. 

It is a complete Collector's Guide, giving practical information as to the best times, 
places and methods of collecting the necessary apparatus, and the details of float- 
ing out, pressing, drying, preserving, and mounting these beautiful plants Full 
directions are also given of the best methods of studying and identifying these plants. 
Full "keys" an. given, at the head of each group, by which the most inexperienced 
may be easily guided to the genus to which the plant he is studying belongs. 

While in the description of species the method of treatment is popular, and 
especially adapted to the need of amateur botanists and sea-side collectors, all the state- 
ments are made with scientific accuracy and carefulness. Ail the common species 
belonging to the three great groups of Green, Olive Colored and Red Algae, are taken 
up in order, and so described in detail, that it is believed they may be easily identified 
whenever found. The book is thus made a complete guide to all the common and 
beautiful forms of our Atlantic flora, north of the Carolinas. including nearly all the 
characteristic forms of the Pacific coast, for California, Oregon and the North. 

The plates, twenty in number, are drawn and colored from nature, and represent 
twenty-four of the most interesting, beautiful and characteristic species, in not less 
than nineteen genera. 

The work is issued in elegant binding, 12 mo., over 300 pages, and is printed on fine, 
heavy paper, with 20 full-paged colored plates. Price, postpaid, $2.00. 

ffi^For sale by all booksellers, or sent* postpaid, on receipt 
of price, by the publisher. 



S. E. CASSINO, Publisher, 

32 HAWLEy STREET, BOSTON, MASS. 



Natural History Store. 

ESTABLISHED IN 1859. 

No. 168 Tremont Street, 
BOSTON. 



W. J. KNOWLTON, 

(Successor to Brewster & Knowlton) 



DEALER IN 



Birds, Minerals, Fossils, Shells, 

AND 

OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY FROM 
ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. 



Naturalists', Taxidermists', 

and Mineralogists' Supplies, 

BIBD& EYES AT LOWEST PRICES. 



Send for Catalogue. 



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